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Tiger Athletic Fitness & Conditioning is a private, appointment only gym in Sandton, Johannesburg. We use sport science to assess client’s health, set SMART goals and design custom fitness and lifestyle programs delivered through personal training. We often have more questions about subjects regards our personal health and fitness than we can find. Here are some notes one of those interesting topics: Stretching and flexibility.
The physiology of stretching
Flexibility
Types of stretching
Physiology of Stretching
An introduction to some of the basic physiological concepts that come into play when a muscle is stretched as well as a general overview of the basic concepts regards stretching and flexibility.
The Musculoskeletal System
Muscles and bones comprise what is called the musculoskeletal
system of the body. The bones provide posture and structural support for the
body and the muscles provide the body with the ability to move (by contracting,
and thus generating tension). The musculoskeletal system also provides
protection for the body’s internal organs.
To serve their function, bones must be joined together by
something. The point where bones connect to one another is called a joint, and
this connection is made mostly by ligaments (along with the help of muscles).
Muscles are attached to the bone by tendons. Bones, tendons, and ligaments do
not possess the ability (as muscles do) to make your body move. Muscles are
unique in this respect.
Muscle Composition
Muscles vary in shape
and in size and serve many different purposes. Most large muscles, like the
hamstrings and quadriceps, control motion. Other muscles, like the heart, and
the muscles of the inner ear, perform other functions. At the microscopic level
however, all muscles share the same basic structure. At the highest level, the
muscle is composed of many strands of tissue called fascicles. Each fascicle is
composed of fasciculi which are bundles of muscle fibres.
The muscle fibres are in turn composed of tens of thousands
of thread-like myofibrils, which can contract, relax, and lengthen. The
myofibrils are composed of up to millions of bands laid end-to-end called
sarcomeres. Each sarcomere is made of overlapping thick and thin filaments
called myofilaments. The thick and thin myofilaments are made up of contractile
proteins, primarily actin and myosin.
Connective Tissue
Located all around the muscle and its fibres are connective
tissues. Connective tissue is composed of a base substance and two kinds of
protein-based fibre. The two types of fibre are collagenous connective tissue
and elastic connective tissue. Collagenous connective tissue consists mostly of
collagen and provides tensile strength. Elastic connective tissue consists
mostly of elastin and provides elasticity.
The base substance is called mucopolysaccharide and acts as
both a lubricant, allowing the fibres to easily slide over one another, and as
glue, holding the fibres of the tissue together into bundles. The more elastic
connective tissue there is around a joint, the greater the range of motion in
that joint. Connective tissues are made up of tendons, ligaments, and the
fascial sheaths that envelop, or bind down, muscles into separate groups. These
fascial sheaths, or fascia, are named according to where they are in the
muscles:
Endomysium
– the innermost fascial sheath that envelops individual muscle fibres.
Perimysium
– The fascial sheath that binds groups of muscle fibres into individual
fasciculi.
Epimysium – The outermost fascial sheath that binds entire
fascicles.
These connective tissues help
provide suppleness and tone to the muscles.
Co-operating Muscle Groups – When muscles cause a
limb to move through the joint’s range of motion, they usually act in the
following cooperating groups:
Agonists – These muscles cause the movement to occur.
They create the normal range of movement in a joint by contracting. Agonists
are also referred to as prime movers since they are the muscles that are
primarily responsible for generating the movement.
Antagonists – These muscles act in opposition to the
movement generated by the agonists and are responsible for returning a limb to
its initial position.
Synergists – These muscles perform, or assist in
performing, the same set of joint motion as the agonists. Synergists are
sometimes referred to as neutralizers because they help cancel out, or
neutralize, extra motion from the agonists to make sure that the force
generated works within the desired plane of motion.
Fixators – These muscles provide the necessary
support to assist in holding the rest of the body in place while the movement
occurs. Fixators are also sometimes called stabilizers.
When you flex your knee for example, your hamstring
contracts, and, to some extent, so does your gastrocnemius and lower buttocks.
Meanwhile, your quadriceps are inhibited (relaxed and lengthened somewhat) so
as not to resist the flexion (see section Reciprocal Inhibition). In this
example, the hamstring serves as the agonist, or prime mover; the quadriceps
serves as the antagonist; and the calf and lower buttocks serve as the synergists.
Agonists and antagonists are usually located on opposite
sides of the affected joint (like your hamstrings and quadriceps, or your
triceps and biceps), while synergists are usually located on the same side of
the joint near the agonists. Larger muscles often call upon their smaller
neighbours to function as synergists.
The following is a list of commonly used agonist/antagonist
muscle pairs:
pectorals/latissimus dorsi (pecs and
lats)
anterior deltoids/posterior deltoids
(front and back shoulder)
trapezius/deltoids (traps and delts)
abdominals/spinal erectors (abs and
lower-back)
left and right external obliques
(sides)
quadriceps/hamstrings (quads and
hams)
shins/calves
biceps/triceps
forearm flexors/extensors
Types of Muscle Contractions
What happens When You Stretch?
How Muscles Contract
The way in which all these various levels of the muscle
operate is as follows:
Nerves – connect the spinal column to the muscle.
Neuromuscular Junction – The place where the nerve
and muscle meet are called the
When an electrical signal crosses the neuromuscular
junction, it is transmitted deep inside the muscle fibres. Inside the muscle
fibres, the signal stimulates the flow of calcium which causes the thick and
thin myofilaments to slide across one another. When this occurs, it causes the
sarcomere to shorten, which generates force. When billions of sarcomeres in the
muscle shorten all at once it results in a contraction of the entire muscle
fibre.
Muscle fibres contract completely. There is no such thing as
a partially contracted muscle fibre. Muscle fibres are unable to vary the
intensity of their contraction relative to the load against which they are
acting. If this is so, then how does the force of a muscle contraction vary in
strength from strong to weak? What happens is that more muscle fibres are
recruited, as they are needed, to perform the job at hand. The more muscle
fibres recruited by the central nervous system, the stronger the force generated
by the muscular contraction.
Fast and Slow Muscle Fibres
The energy which produces the calcium flow in the muscle
fibres comes from mitochondria, the part of the muscle cell that converts
glucose (blood sugar) into energy. Different types of muscle fibres have
different amounts of mitochondria. The more mitochondria in a muscle fibre, the
more energy it can produce. Muscle fibres are categorized into slow-twitch
fibres and fast-twitch fibres.
Slow-twitch fibres (Type 1) are slow to contract, but they
are also very slow to fatigue. Fast-twitch fibres are very quick to contract
and come in two varieties: Type 2A muscle fibres which fatigue at an
intermediate rate, and Type 2B muscle fibres which fatigue very quickly. The
main reason the slow-twitch fibres are slow to fatigue is that they contain
more mitochondria than fast-twitch fibres and hence can produce more energy.
Slow-twitch fibres are also smaller in diameter than
fast-twitch fibres and have increased capillary blood flow around them. Because
they have a smaller diameter and an increased blood flow, the slow-twitch
fibres can deliver more oxygen and remove more waste products from the muscle
fibres.
These three muscle fibre types (Types 1, 2A, and 2B) are
contained in all muscles in varying amounts. Muscles that need to be contracted
much of the time (like the heart) have a greater number of Type 1 (slow)
fibres. According to Health for Life Training Advisor:
When a muscle begins to contract, primarily Type 1 fibres
are activated first, and then Type 2A, then 2B. This sequence of fibre
recruitment allows very delicate and finely tuned muscle responses to brain
commands. It also makes Type 2B fibres difficult to train; most of the Type 1
and 2A fibres must be activated already before a large percentage of the 2B
fibres participate.
Health for Life Training Advisor further states that the
best way to remember the difference between muscles with predominantly
slow-twitch fibres and muscles with predominantly fast-twitch fibres is to
think of “white meat” and “dark meat”.
Dark meat is dark because it has a greater number of
slow-twitch muscle fibres and hence a greater number of mitochondria, which are
dark. White meat consists mostly of muscle fibres which are at rest much of the
time but are frequently called on to engage in brief bouts of intense activity.
This muscle tissue can contract quickly but is fast to fatigue and slow to
recover. White meat is lighter in colour than dark meat because it contains
fewer mitochondria.
Types of Muscle Contractions
The contraction of a muscle does not only mean that the
muscle shortens; it means that tension has been generated. Muscles can contract
in the following ways:
Isometric contraction – This is a contraction in
which no movement takes place, because the load on the muscle exceeds the
tension generated by the contracting muscle. This occurs when a muscle attempts
to push or pull an immovable object.
Concentric contraction – the muscles that are
shortening serve as the agonists and hence do all the work. During an eccentric
contraction the muscles that are lengthening serve as the agonists.
Isotonic contraction – This is a contraction in which
movement does take place, because the tension generated by the contracting
muscle exceeds the load on the muscle. This occurs when you use your muscles to
successfully push or pull an object.
Isotonic contractions are further divided into two types:
Concentric contraction – This is a contraction in
which the muscle decreases in length (shortens) against an opposing load, such
as lifting a weight up.
Eccentric contraction – This is a contraction in
which the muscle increases in length (lengthens) as it resists a load, such as
pushing something down.
What Happens When You Stretch?
The stretching of a muscle fibre begins with the sarcomere,
the basic unit of contraction in the muscle fibre. The sarcomere contracts, the
area of overlap between the thick and thin myofilaments increases. As it
stretches, this area of overlap decreases, allowing the muscle fibre to
elongate. Once the muscle fibre is at its maximum resting length, additional
stretching places force on the surrounding connective tissue. As the tension
increases, the collagen fibres in the connective tissue align themselves along
the same line of force as the tension.
Hence when you stretch, the muscle fibre is pulled out to
its full-length sarcomere by sarcomere, and then the connective tissue takes up
the remaining slack. When this occurs, it helps to realign any disorganized
fibres in the direction of the tension. This realignment is what helps to rehabilitate
scarred tissue back to health.
When a muscle is stretched, some of its fibres lengthen, but
other fibres may remain at rest. The current length of the entire muscle
depends upon the number of stretched fibres.
Picture little pockets of fibres distributed throughout the
muscle body stretching, and other fibres simply going along for the ride. Just
as the total strength of a contracting muscle is a result of the number of
fibres contracting, the total length of a stretched muscle is a result of the number
of fibres stretched — the more fibres stretched, the more length developed by
the muscle for a given stretch.
Proprioceptors – The nerve endings that relay all the
information about the musculoskeletal system to the central nervous system are
called proprioceptors. Proprioceptors, also called mechanoreceptors are the
source of all proprioception: the perception of one’s own body position and
movement.
The proprioceptors detect any changes in physical
displacement (movement or position) and any changes in tension, or force,
within the body. They are found in all nerve endings of the joints, muscles,
and tendons. The proprioceptors related to stretching are in the tendons and in
the muscle fibres.
There are two kinds of muscle fibres: intrafusal
muscle fibres and extrafusal muscle fibres. Extrafusal fibres are the
ones that contain myofibrils and are what is usually meant when we talk about
muscle fibres. Intrafusal fibres are also called muscle spindles and lie
parallel to the extrafusal fibres.
Muscle spindles, or stretch receptors, are the primary
proprioceptors in the muscle. Another proprioceptor that comes into play during
stretching is in the tendon near the end of the muscle fibre and is called the
Golgi tendon organ.
A third type of proprioceptor, called a Pacinian
corpuscle, is located close to the Golgi tendon organ and is responsible
for detecting changes in movement and pressure within the body.
When the extrafusal fibres of a muscle lengthen, so do the
intrafusal fibres. The muscle spindle contains two different types of fibres
(or stretch receptors) which are sensitive to the change in muscle length and
the rate of change in muscle length. When muscles contract, tension is placed
on the tendons where the Golgi tendon organ is located. The Golgi tendon organ
is sensitive to the change in tension and the rate of change of the tension.
The Stretch Reflex – When the muscle is stretched, so
is the muscle spindle. The muscle spindle records the change in length (and
speed) and sends signals to the spine which convey this information. This
triggers the stretch reflex (myotatic reflex) which attempts to resist the
change in muscle length by causing the stretched muscle to contract. The more
sudden the change in muscle length, the stronger the muscle contractions will
be (plyometric training is based on this fact). This basic function of the
muscle spindle helps to maintain muscle tone and to protect the body from
injury.
One of the reasons for holding a stretch for a prolonged
period is that as you hold the muscle in a stretched position, the muscle
spindle habituates and reduces its signalling. Gradually, you can train your
stretch receptors to allow greater lengthening of the muscles.
Some sources suggest that with extensive training, the
stretch reflex of certain muscles can be controlled so that there is little or
no reflex contraction in response to a sudden stretch. While this type of
control provides the opportunity for the greatest gains in flexibility, it also
provides the greatest risk of injury if used improperly. Professional athletes
and martial artists at the top of their sport are believed to possess this
level of muscular control.
The stretch reflex has both a dynamic component and a static
component. The static component of the stretch reflex persists if the muscle is
being stretched. The dynamic component of the stretch reflex lasts for only a
moment and is in response to the initial sudden increase in muscle length.
The reason that the stretch reflex has two components is
because there are two kinds of intrafusal muscle fibres: nuclear chain
fibres, which are responsible for the static component; and nuclear bag
fibres, which are responsible for the dynamic component.
Nuclear chain fibres are long and thin and lengthen
steadily when stretched. When these fibres are stretched, the stretch reflex
nerves increase their firing rates as their length steadily increases. This is
the static component of the stretch reflex.
Nuclear bag fibres bulge out at the middle, where
they are the most elastic. The stretch-sensing nerve ending for these fibres is
wrapped around this middle area, which lengthens rapidly when the fibre is
stretched. The outer-middle areas, in contrast, act like they are filled with
viscous fluid; they resist fast stretching, gradually extend under prolonged
tension.
So, when a fast stretch is demanded of these fibres, the
middle takes most of the stretch at first; then, as the outer-middle parts extend,
the middle can shorten somewhat. So, the nerve that senses stretching in these fibres’
fires rapidly with the onset of a fast stretch, then slows as the middle
section of the fibre can shorten again. This is the dynamic component of the
stretch reflex: a strong signal to contract at the onset of a rapid increase in
muscle length, followed by slightly “higher than normal” signalling which
gradually decreases as the rate of change of the muscle length decreases.
The Lengthening Reaction – When muscles contract,
they produce tension at the point where the muscle is connected to the tendon,
where the Golgi tendon organ is located.
The Golgi tendon organ records the change in tension,
and the rate of change of the tension, and sends signals to the spine to convey
this information. When this tension exceeds a certain threshold, it triggers
the lengthening reaction which inhibits the muscles from contracting and causes
them to relax.
Other names for this reflex are the inverse myotatic
reflex, autogenic inhibition, and the clasped-knife reflex. This basic
function of the Golgi tendon organ helps to protect the muscles, tendons, and
ligaments from injury. The lengthening reaction is possible only because the
signalling of Golgi tendon organ to the spinal cord is powerful enough to
overcome the signalling of the muscle spindles telling the muscle to contract.
Another reason for holding a stretch for a prolonged period
is to allow this lengthening reaction to occur, thus helping the stretched
muscles to relax. It is easier to stretch, or lengthen, a muscle when it is not
trying to contract.
Reciprocal Inhibition – When an agonist contracts, to
cause the desired motion, it usually forces the antagonists to relax. This
phenomenon is called reciprocal inhibition because the antagonists are
inhibited from contracting. This is sometimes called reciprocal innervation,
but that term is really a misnomer since it is the agonists which inhibit the
antagonists. The antagonists do not actually innervate the agonists.
Such inhibition of the antagonistic muscles is not
necessarily required. In fact, co-contraction can occur. When you perform a
sit-up, one would normally assume that the stomach muscles inhibit the
contraction of the muscles in the lumbar, or lower, region of the back. In this
instance however, the back muscles (spinal erectors) also contract. This is one
reason why sit-ups are good for strengthening the back as well as the stomach.
When stretching, it is easier to stretch a muscle that is
relaxed than to stretch a muscle that is contracting. By taking advantage of
the situations when reciprocal inhibition does occur, you can get a more
effective stretch by inducing the antagonists to relax during the stretch due
to the contraction of the agonists.
You also want to relax any muscles used as synergists by the
muscle you are trying to stretch. For example, when you stretch your calf, you
want to contract the shin muscles by flexing your foot. However, the hamstrings
use the calf as a synergist, so you want to also relax the hamstrings by
contracting the quadriceps.
Flexibility
Many people are unaware of the fact that there are different
types of flexibility. These different types of flexibility are grouped
according to the various types of activities involved in athletic training. The
ones which involve motion are called dynamic and the ones which do not are
called static. The different types of flexibility are:
Dynamic flexibility – also called kinetic
flexibility is the ability to perform dynamic (or kinetic) movements of the
muscles to bring a limb through its full range of motion in the joints.
Static-active flexibility – also called active
flexibility is the ability to assume and maintain extended positions using
only the tension of the agonists and synergists while the antagonists are being
stretched. For example, lifting the leg and keeping it high without any
external support.
Static-passive flexibility – also called passive
flexibility is the ability to assume extended positions and then maintain
them using only your weight, the support of your limbs, or some other apparatus
(such as a chair). Note that the ability to maintain the position does not come
solely from your muscles, as it does with static-active flexibility. Being able
to perform the splits is an example of static-passive flexibility.
Research has shown that active flexibility is more closely
related to the level of sports achievement than is passive flexibility. Active
flexibility is harder to develop than passive flexibility (which is what most
people think of as “flexibility”); not only does active flexibility require
passive flexibility to assume an initial extended position, it also requires
muscle strength to be able to hold and maintain that position.
Factors Limiting Flexibility
Flexibility (mobility) is affected by the following factors:
Internal influences.
The type of joint (some joints
simply aren’t meant to be flexible).
The internal resistance within a
joint.
Bony structures which limit
movement.
The elasticity of muscle tissue
(muscle tissue that is scarred due to a previous injury is not very
elastic).
The elasticity of tendons and
ligaments (ligaments do not stretch much, tendons should not stretch at
all).
The elasticity of skin (skin has
some degree of elasticity, but not much).
The ability of a muscle to relax and
contract to achieve the greatest range of movement.
The temperature of the joint and
associated tissues (joints and muscles offer better flexibility at body
temperatures that are 1 to 2 degrees higher than normal).
External influences
The temperature of the place where
one is training (a warmer temperature is more conducive to increased
flexibility).
The time of day (most people are
more flexible in the afternoon than in the morning, peaking from about
2:30pm-4pm).
The stage in the recovery process of
a joint (or muscle) after injury (injured joints and muscles will usually
offer less flexibility than healthy ones).
Age (pre-adolescents are generally
more flexible than adults).
Gender (females are generally more
flexible than males).
One’s ability to perform an exercise
(practice makes perfect).
One’s commitment to achieving
flexibility.
The restrictions of
any clothing or equipment.
Some sources also suggest that
water is an important dietary element regards flexibility. Increased water
intake is believed to contribute to increased mobility, as well as increased
total body relaxation.
Rather than discuss each of these factors in significant
detail, I will attempt to focus on some of the more common factors which limit
one’s flexibility. The most common factors are:
Bone structure – Depending on the type of joint
involved and its present condition, the bone structure of a joint places very
noticeable limits on flexibility. This is a common way in which age can be a
factor limiting flexibility since older joints tend not to be as healthy as
younger ones.
Muscle mass – can be a factor when the muscle is so
heavily developed that it interferes with the ability to take the adjacent
joints through their complete range of motion (for example, large hamstrings
limit the ability to fully bend the knees).
Excess fatty tissue – imposes a similar restriction.
Connective tissue – Most of “flexibility” work should
involve performing exercises designed to reduce the internal resistance offered
by soft connective tissues.
Physical injury or disability – Most stretching
exercises attempt to accomplish this goal and can be performed by almost
anyone, regardless of age or gender.
How Connective Tissue Affects Flexibility
The resistance to lengthening that is offered by a muscle is
dependent upon its connective tissues: When the muscle elongates, the
surrounding connective tissues become tauter. Also, inactivity of certain
muscles or joints can cause chemical changes in connective tissue which
restrict flexibility. To quote Michael J Alter directly:
“A question of great interest to all athletes is the
relative importance of various tissues in joint stiffness. The joint capsule
(i.e., the saclike structure that encloses the ends of bones) and ligaments are
the most important factors, accounting for 47 percent of the stiffness,
followed by the muscle’s fascia (41 percent), the tendons (10 percent), and
skin (2 percent). However, most efforts to increase flexibility through
stretching should be directed to the muscle fascia. The reasons for this are
twofold.
First, muscle and its fascia have more elastic
tissue, so they are more modifiable in terms of reducing resistance to
elongation.
Second, because ligaments and tendons have less
elasticity than fascia, it is undesirable to produce too much slack in them.
Overstretching these structures may weaken the integrity of joints.
As a result, an excessive amount of flexibility may
destabilize the joints and increase an athlete’s risk of injury.” When
connective tissue is overused, the tissue becomes fatigued and may tear, which
also limits flexibility.
When connective tissue is unused or under used, it provides
significant resistance and limits flexibility. The elastin begins to fray and
loses some of its elasticity, and the collagen increases in stiffness and in
density. Aging has some of the same effects on connective tissue that lack of
use has.
How Flexibility Affects Ageing
With appropriate training, flexibility can, and should, be
developed at all ages. This does not imply, however, that flexibility can be
developed at the same rate by everyone. In general, the older you are, the
longer it will take to develop the desired level of flexibility. Hopefully,
you’ll be more patient if you’re older.
According to Michael J Alter, the main reason we become less
flexible as we get older is a result of certain changes that take place in our
connective tissues:
“The primary factor responsible for the decline of
flexibility with age is certain changes that occur in the connective tissues of
the body. Interestingly, it has been suggested that exercise can delay the loss
of flexibility due to the aging process of dehydration. This is based on the
notion that stretching stimulates the production or retention of lubricants
between the connective tissue fibres, thus preventing the formation of
adhesions.”
Michael J Alter further states that some of the physical
changes attributed to aging are the following:
An increased amount of calcium
deposits, adhesions, and cross-links in the body
An increase in the level of
fragmentation and dehydration
Changes in the chemical structure of
the tissues.
Loss of suppleness
due to the replacement of muscle fibres with fatty, collagenous fibres.
This does not mean that you
should give up trying to achieve flexibility if you are old or inflexible. It
just means that you need to work harder, and more carefully, for a longer
period when attempting to increase flexibility. Increases in the ability of muscle
tissues and connective tissues to elongate can be achieved at any age.
Strength and Flexibility
One of the best times to stretch is right after a strength
workout such as weightlifting. Static stretching of fatigued muscles performed
immediately following the exercise(s) that caused the fatigue, helps not only
to increase flexibility, but also enhances the promotion of muscular
development, and will help decrease the level of post-exercise soreness. Here’s
why: After you have used weights (or other stimuli) to overload and fatigue
your muscles, your muscles retain a “pump” and are shortened somewhat.
This “shortening” is due mostly to the repetition of intense
muscle activity that often only takes the muscle through part of its full range
of motion. This “pump” makes the muscle appear bigger. The “pumped” muscle is
also full of lactic acid and other by-products from exhaustive exercise. If the
muscle is not stretched afterward, it will retain this decreased range of
motion and the build-up of lactic acid will cause post-exercise soreness.
Static stretching of the “pumped” muscle helps it to become
“looser”, and to “remember” its full range of movement. It also helps to remove
lactic acid and other waste-products from the muscle. While it is true that stretching
the “pumped” muscle will make it appear visibly smaller, it does not decrease
the muscle’s size or inhibit muscle growth. It merely reduces the “tightness”
(contraction) of the muscles so that they do not “bulge” as much.
Also, strenuous workouts will often cause damage to the
muscle’s connective tissue. The tissue heals in 1 to 2 days, but it is believed
that the tissues heal at a shorter length (decreasing muscular development as
well as flexibility). To prevent the tissues from healing at a shorter length,
physiologists recommend static stretching after strength workouts.
Why Contortionists Should Strengthen
You should be “tempering” (or balancing) your flexibility
training with strength training (and vice versa). Do not perform stretching
exercises for a given muscle group without also performing strength exercises
for that same group of muscles. Judy Alter, in her book Stretch and Strengthen,
recommends stretching muscles after performing strength exercises, and
performing strength exercises for every muscle you stretch. In other words:
“Strengthen what you stretch and stretch what you strengthen!”
The reason for this is that flexibility training on a
regular basis causes connective tissues to stretch which in turn causes them to
loosen and elongate. When the connective tissue of a muscle is weak, it is more
likely to become damaged due to overstretching, or sudden, powerful muscular
contractions. The likelihood of such injury can be prevented by strengthening
the muscles bound by the connective tissue.
Dynamic strength training consisting of light dynamic
exercises with weights (lots of reps, not too much weight), and isometric
tension exercises. If you also lift weights, dynamic strength training for a
muscle should occur before subjecting that muscle to an intense weightlifting
workout. This helps to pre-exhaust the muscle first, making it easier (and
faster) to achieve the desired overload in an intense strength workout.
Attempting to perform dynamic strength training after an intense weightlifting
workout would be largely ineffective.
If you are working on increasing (or maintaining)
flexibility, then it is very important that your strength exercises force your
muscles to take the joints through their full range of motion. Repeating
movements that do not use a full range of motion in the joints (e.g.,
bicycling, certain techniques of Olympic weightlifting, pushups) can cause a
shortening of the muscles surrounding the joints of the working limbs. This
shortening is a result of setting the nervous control of length and tension in
the muscles at the values repeated most often or most strongly. Stronger
stimuli are remembered better.
Over flexibility
It is possible for the muscles of a joint to become too
flexible. There is a trade-off between flexibility and stability. The looser
you get, the less support offered to the joints by their adjacent muscles.
Excessive flexibility can be just as much of a liability as not enough
flexibility. Either one increases your risk of injury.
Once a muscle has reached its absolute maximum length,
attempting to stretch the muscle further only serves to stretch the ligaments
and put undue stress upon the tendons (two things that you do not want to
stretch). Ligaments will tear when stretched more than 6% of their normal
length. Tendons are not even supposed to be able to lengthen. Even when
stretched ligaments and tendons do not tear, loose joints and/or a decrease in
the joint’s stability can occur vastly increasing the risk of injury.
Once you have achieved the desired level of flexibility for
a muscle or set of muscles and have maintained that level for a solid week, you
should discontinue any isometric or PNF stretching of that muscle until some of
its flexibility is lost.
Types of Stretching
Just as there are different types of flexibility, there are
also different types of stretching. Stretches are either dynamic (meaning they
involve motion) or static (meaning they involve no motion). Dynamic stretches
affect dynamic flexibility and static stretches affect static flexibility (and
dynamic flexibility to some degree).
The different types of stretching are:
Ballistic stretching – Uses, the momentum of a moving
body or a limb to force it beyond its normal range of motion. This is
stretching, or “warming up”, by bouncing into (or out of) a stretched position,
using the stretched muscles as a spring which pulls you out of the stretched
position. (E.g. bouncing down repeatedly to touch your toes.) This type of
stretching is not considered useful and can lead to injury. It does not allow
your muscles to adjust to, and relax in, the stretched position. It may instead
cause them to tighten up by repeatedly activating the stretch reflex.
Dynamic stretching – Moving parts of your body and
gradually increasing reach, speed of movement, or both. Dynamic stretching
consists of controlled leg and arm swings that take you to the limits of your
range of motion in a controlled fashion. In dynamic stretches, there are no
bounces or “jerky” movements. An example of dynamic stretching would be slow,
controlled leg swings, arm swings, or torso twists.
Dynamic stretching improves dynamic flexibility and
is quite useful as part of your warm-up for an active or aerobic workout (such
as Karate, MMA, Football or Rugby).
Dynamic stretching exercises should be performed in sets of
8-12 repetitions:
Tired muscles are less elastic, which causes a decrease in
the amplitude of your movements. Do only the number of repetitions that you can
do without decreasing your range of motion. More repetitions will only set the
nervous regulation of the muscles’ length at the level of these less than best
repetitions and may cause you to lose some of your flexibility.
What you repeat more times or with a greater effort will
leave a deeper trace in your kinaesthetic memory. After reaching the maximal
range of motion in a joint in any direction of movement, you should not do many
more repetitions of this movement in a given workout. Even if you can maintain
a maximal range of motion over many repetitions, you will set an unnecessarily
solid memory of the range of these movements. You will then have to overcome
these memories in order to make further progress.
Active stretching – Also referred to as,
static-active stretching. An active stretch is one where you assume a position
and then hold it there with no assistance other than using the strength of your
agonist muscles for example, bringing your leg up high and then holding it
there without anything other than your leg muscles themselves to keep the leg
in that extended position. The tension of the agonists in an active stretch
helps to relax the muscles being stretched (the antagonists) by reciprocal
inhibition.
Active stretching increases active flexibility and
strengthens the agonistic muscles. Active stretches are usually quite difficult
to hold and maintain for more than 10 seconds and rarely need to be held any
longer than 15 seconds.
Many of the movements (or stretches) found in various forms
of yoga are active stretches.
Passive (or relaxed) stretching – Referred to as
relaxed stretching or static-passive stretching. A passive stretch is one where
you assume a position and hold it with some other part of your body, or with
the assistance of a partner or some other apparatus. For example, bringing your
leg up high and then holding it there with your hand. The splits are an example
of a passive stretch in this case the floor is the “apparatus”.
Slow, relaxed stretching is useful in relieving spasms in
muscles that are healing after an injury. Obviously, you should check with your
doctor first to see if it is okay to attempt to stretch the injured muscles.
Relaxed stretching is also very good for “cooling down”
after a workout and helps reduce post-workout muscle fatigue, and soreness.
Static stretching – Many people use the term “passive
stretching” and “static stretching” interchangeably. However, there are several
people who make a distinction between the two.
Static stretching involves holding a position. That is, you
stretch to the farthest point and hold the stretch.
Passive stretching is a technique in which you are
relaxed and make no contribution to the range of motion. Instead, an external
force is created by an outside agent, either manually or mechanically.
Notice that the definition of passive stretching given in
the previous section encompasses both above definitions. Throughout this
document, when the term static stretching, or passive stretching is used, its
intended meaning is the definition of passive stretching as described in the
previous section. You should be aware of these alternative meanings, however,
when looking at other references on stretching.
Isometric stretching – A type of static stretching
which involves the resistance of muscle groups through isometric contractions
(tensing) of the stretched muscles). The use of isometric stretching is one of
the fastest ways to develop increased static-passive flexibility and is much
more effective than either passive stretching or active stretching alone.
Isometric stretches also help to develop strength in the
“tensed” muscles (which helps to develop static-active flexibility) and seems
to decrease the amount of pain usually associated with stretching.
The most common ways to provide the needed resistance for an
isometric stretch are to apply resistance manually to one’s own limbs, to have
a partner apply the resistance, or to use an apparatus such as a wall or the
floor to provide resistance.
Isometric stretching is not recommended for children and
adolescents whose bones are still growing. These people are usually already
flexible enough that the strong stretches produced by the isometric contraction
have a much higher risk of damaging tendons and connective tissue.
Precede any isometric stretch of a muscle with dynamic
strength training for the muscle to be stretched. A full session of isometric
stretching makes a lot of demands on the muscles being stretched and should not
be performed more than once per day for a given group of muscles, ideally, no
more than once every 36 hours.
The proper way to perform an isometric stretch is as
follows:
Assume the position of a passive
stretch for the desired muscle.
Tense the stretched muscle for 7-15
seconds (resisting against some force that will not move, like the floor
or a partner).
Finally, relax the
muscle for at least 20 seconds.
Some people seem to recommend
holding the isometric contraction for longer than 15 seconds; research has
shown that this is not necessary. So, you might as well make your stretching
routine less time consuming.
How Isometric Stretching Works
Recall, there is no such thing as a partially contracted
muscle fibre: when a muscle is contracted, some of the fibres contract and some
remain at rest (more fibres are recruited as the load on the muscle increases).
Similarly, when a muscle is stretched, some of the fibres are elongated and
some remain at rest. During an isometric contraction, some of the resting
fibres are being pulled upon from both ends by the muscles that are
contracting. The result is that some of those resting fibres stretch.
Normally, the fibres that stretch during an isometric
contraction are not very significant. The true effectiveness of the isometric
contraction occurs when a muscle that is already in a stretched position is
subjected to an isometric contraction. In this case, some of the muscle fibres
are already stretched before the contraction and if held long enough the
initial passive stretch overcomes the stretch reflex and triggers the
lengthening reaction inhibiting the stretched fibres from contracting.
At this point: When isometrically contracted, some of the
resting fibres would contract, many of the resting fibres would stretch, and
many of the already stretched fibres, which are being prevented from
contracting by the inverse myotatic reflex [the lengthening reaction], would
stretch even more. When the isometric contraction was relaxed, and the
contracting fibres returned to their resting length, the stretched fibres would
retain their ability to stretch beyond their normal limit. I.e. The whole
muscle would be able to stretch beyond its initial maximum, and you would have
increased flexibility.
The reason that the stretched fibres develop and retain the
ability to stretch beyond their normal limit during an isometric stretch has to
do with the muscle spindles: The signal which tells the muscle to contract
voluntarily, also tells the muscle spindle’s (intrafusal) muscle fibres to
shorten, increasing sensitivity of the stretch reflex. This mechanism normally
maintains the sensitivity of the muscle spindle as the muscle shortens during
contraction. This allows the muscle spindles to habituate to an even
further-lengthened position.
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) – PNF
stretching is currently the fastest and most effective way known to increase
static-passive flexibility. It is not really a type of stretching but is a
technique of combining passive stretching and isometric stretching to achieve
maximum static flexibility. The term PNF stretching is itself a misnomer. PNF
was initially developed as a method of rehabilitating stroke victims.
PNF refers to any of several post-isometric relaxation
stretching techniques in which a muscle group is passively stretched, then
contracts isometrically against resistance while in the stretched position, and
then is passively stretched again through the resulting increased range of
motion. PNF stretching usually employs the use of a partner to provide
resistance against the isometric contraction and then later to passively take
the joint through its increased range of motion. It may be performed, however,
without a partner, although it is usually more effective with a partner’s
assistance.
Most PNF stretching techniques employ isometric agonist
contraction/relaxation where the stretched muscles are contracted isometrically
and then relaxed. Some PNF techniques also employ isometric antagonist
contraction where the antagonists of the stretched muscles are contracted. In
all cases, it is important to note that the stretched muscle should be rested
(and relaxed) for at least 20 seconds before performing another PNF technique.
The most common PNF stretching techniques are:
The hold-relax – This technique is also called the
contract-relax. After assuming an initial passive stretch, the muscle being
stretched is isometrically contracted for 7-15 seconds, after which the muscle
is briefly relaxed for 2-3 seconds, and then immediately subjected to a passive
stretch which stretches the muscle even further than the initial passive
stretch. This final passive stretch is held for 10-15 seconds. The muscle is
then relaxed for 20 seconds before performing another PNF technique.
The hold-relax-contract – This technique is also
called the contract-relax-contract, and the contract-relax-antagonist-contract
(or CRAC). It involves performing two isometric contractions: first of the
agonists, then, of the antagonists. The first part is like the hold-relax
where, after assuming an initial passive stretch, the stretched muscle is
isometrically contracted for 7-15 seconds. Then the muscle is relaxed while its
antagonist immediately performs an isometric contraction that is held for 7-15
seconds. The muscles are then relaxed for 20 seconds before performing another
PNF technique.
The hold-relax-swing – This technique (and a similar
technique called the hold-relax-bounce) involves the use of dynamic or
ballistic stretches in conjunction with static and isometric stretches. It is
very risky and is successfully used only by the most advanced of athletes that
have managed to achieve a high level of control over their muscle stretch
reflex). It is like the hold-relax technique except that a dynamic or ballistic
stretch is employed in place of the final passive stretch.
Notice that in the hold-relax-contract, there is no final
passive stretch. It is replaced by the antagonist-contraction which, via
reciprocal inhibition serves to relax and further stretch the muscle that was
subjected to the initial passive stretch. Because there is no final passive
stretch, this PNF technique is considered one of the safest PNF techniques to
perform as it is less likely to result in torn muscle tissue. Some people like
to make the technique even more intense by adding the final passive stretch
after the second isometric contraction. Although this can result in greater
flexibility gains, it also increases the likelihood of injury.
Even more risky are dynamic and ballistic PNF stretching
techniques like the hold-relax-swing, and the hold-relax-bounce. If you are not
a professional athlete, you probably have no business attempting either of
these techniques as the probability of injury is great). Even professionals
should not attempt these techniques without the guidance of a professional
coach or training advisor. These two techniques have the greatest potential for
rapid flexibility gains, but only when performed by people who have a
sufficiently high level of control of the stretch reflex in the muscles that
are being stretched.
Like isometric stretching PNF stretching is also not
recommended for children and people whose bones are still growing (for the same
reasons. Also, like isometric stretching, PNF stretching helps strengthen the
muscles that are contracted and therefore is good for increasing active
flexibility as well as passive flexibility. Furthermore, as with isometric
stretching, PNF stretching is very strenuous and should be performed for a
given muscle group no more than once per day (ideally, no more than once per
36-hour period).
The initial recommended procedure for PNF stretching is to
perform the desired PNF technique 3-5 times for a given muscle group, resting
20 seconds between each repetition. However, a 1987 study whose results suggest
that performing 3-5 repetitions of a PNF technique for a given muscle group is
not necessarily any more effective than performing the technique only once. As
a result, to decrease the amount of time taken up by your stretching routine,
without decreasing its effectiveness), perform only one PNF technique per
muscle group stretched in a given stretching session.
How PNF Stretching Works
During an isometric stretch, when the muscle performing the
isometric contraction is relaxed, it retains its ability to stretch beyond its
initial maximum length. PNF takes immediate advantage of this increased range
of motion by immediately subjecting the contracted muscle to a passive stretch.
The isometric contraction of the stretched muscle accomplishes
several things:
It helps to train the stretch
receptors of the muscle spindle to immediately accommodate a greater
muscle length.
The intense muscle contraction, and
the fact that it is maintained for a period, serves to fatigue many of the
fast-twitch fibres of the contracting muscles. This makes it harder for
the fatigued muscle fibres to contract in resistance to a subsequent stretch.
The tension generated by the
contraction activates the Golgi tendon which inhibits contraction of the
muscle via the lengthening reaction. Voluntary contraction during a
stretch increases tension on the muscle, activating the Golgi tendon
organs more than the stretch alone. So, when the voluntary contraction is
stopped, the muscle is even more inhibited from contracting against a
subsequent stretch.
PNF stretching techniques take advantage of the sudden
“vulnerability” of the muscle and its increased range of motion by using the
period immediately following the isometric contraction to train the stretch
receptors to get used to this new, increased, range of muscle length. This is
what the final passive (or in some cases, dynamic) stretch accomplishes.
Benefits of Stretching
Stretching can do more than just increase flexibility.
Benefits of stretching include:
Enhanced physical fitness.
Enhanced ability to learn and
perform skilled movements.
Increased mental and physical
relaxation.
Enhanced development of body
awareness.
Reduced risk of injury to joints,
muscles, and tendons.
Reduced muscular soreness.
Reduced muscular tension.
Increased suppleness due to
stimulation of the production of chemicals which lubricate connective
tissues.
Reduced severity of painful
menstruation (dysmenorrhea) in females.
Unfortunately, even those who stretch do not always stretch
properly and hence do not reap some or all these benefits. Some of the most
common mistakes made when stretching:
improper warm-up
inadequate rest between workouts
overstretching
performing the wrong exercises
performing exercises in the wrong
(or sub-optimal) sequence
Tiger Athletic Fitness & Conditioning is a private,
appointment only gym in Sandton, Johannesburg. We use sport science to assess client’s
health, set SMART goals and design custom fitness and lifestyle programs
delivered through personal training.
Together changes everything. Let’s work out!
Acknowledgement.
Sport Stretch, by Michael J. Alter.
Stretching Scientifically, by Tom
SynerStretch for Total Body
Flexibility, from Health for Life.
The Health for Life Training
Advisor, also from Health for Life.
Mobility Training for the Martial
Arts, by Tony Gummerson.
Tiger Athletic Fitness & Conditioning is a private, appointment only strength & conditioning gym in the heart of Sandton offering tailor made, goal-oriented fitness programs. This is the third of three resources, a modest attempt to address some of the frequently asked questions about stretching and flexibility. Here we look at different types of stretching.
Just as there are different types of flexibility, there are also different types of stretching. Stretches are either dynamic (meaning they involve motion) or static (meaning they involve no motion). Dynamic stretches affect dynamic flexibility and static stretches affect static flexibility (and dynamic flexibility to some degree).
The different types of stretching are:
Ballistic stretching – Uses, the momentum of a moving body or a limb to force it beyond its normal range of motion. This is stretching, or “warming up”, by bouncing into (or out of) a stretched position, using the stretched muscles as a spring which pulls you out of the stretched position. (E.g. bouncing down repeatedly to touch your toes.) This type of stretching is not considered useful and can lead to injury. It does not allow your muscles to adjust to, and relax in, the stretched position. It may instead cause them to tighten up by repeatedly activating the stretch reflex.
Dynamic stretching – Moving parts of your body and gradually increasing reach, speed of movement, or both. Dynamic stretching consists of controlled leg and arm swings that take you to the limits of your range of motion in a controlled fashion. In dynamic stretches, there are no bounces or “jerky” movements. An example of dynamic stretching would be slow, controlled leg swings, arm swings, or torso twists.
Dynamic stretching improves dynamic flexibility and is quite useful as part of your warm-up for an active or aerobic workout (such as Karate, MMA, Football or Rugby).
Dynamic stretching exercises should be performed in sets of 8-12 repetitions:
Tired muscles are less elastic, which causes a decrease in the amplitude of your movements. Do only the number of repetitions that you can do without decreasing your range of motion. More repetitions will only set the nervous regulation of the muscles’ length at the level of these less than best repetitions and may cause you to lose some of your flexibility. What you repeat more times or with a greater effort will leave a deeper trace in your kinaesthetic memory. After reaching the maximal range of motion in a joint in any direction of movement, you should not do many more repetitions of this movement in a given workout. Even if you can maintain a maximal range of motion over many repetitions, you will set an unnecessarily solid memory of the range of these movements. You will then have to overcome these memories in order to make further progress.
Active stretching – Also referred to as, static-active stretching. An active stretch is one where you assume a position and then hold it there with no assistance other than using the strength of your agonist muscles for example, bringing your leg up high and then holding it there without anything other than your leg muscles themselves to keep the leg in that extended position. The tension of the agonists in an active stretch helps to relax the muscles being stretched (the antagonists) by reciprocal inhibition.
Active stretching increases active flexibility and strengthens the agonistic muscles. Active stretches are usually quite difficult to hold and maintain for more than 10 seconds and rarely need to be held any longer than 15 seconds.
Many of the movements (or stretches) found in various forms of yoga are active stretches.
Passive (or relaxed) stretching – Referred to as relaxed stretching or static-passive stretching. A passive stretch is one where you assume a position and hold it with some other part of your body, or with the assistance of a partner or some other apparatus. For example, bringing your leg up high and then holding it there with your hand. The splits are an example of a passive stretch in this case the floor is the “apparatus”.
Slow, relaxed stretching is useful in relieving spasms in muscles that are healing after an injury. Obviously, you should check with your doctor first to see if it is okay to attempt to stretch the injured muscles.
Relaxed stretching is also very good for “cooling down” after a workout and helps reduce post-workout muscle fatigue, and soreness.
Static stretching – Many people use the term “passive stretching” and “static stretching” interchangeably. However, there are several people who make a distinction between the two.
Static stretching involves holding a position. That is, you stretch to the farthest point and hold the stretch.
Passive stretching is a technique in which you are relaxed and make no contribution to the range of motion. Instead, an external force is created by an outside agent, either manually or mechanically.
Notice that the definition of passive stretching given in the previous section encompasses both above definitions. Throughout this document, when the term static stretching, or passive stretching is used, its intended meaning is the definition of passive stretching as described in the previous section. You should be aware of these alternative meanings, however, when looking at other references on stretching.
Isometric stretching – A type of static stretching which involves the resistance of muscle groups through isometric contractions (tensing) of the stretched muscles). The use of isometric stretching is one of the fastest ways to develop increased static-passive flexibility and is much more effective than either passive stretching or active stretching alone. Isometric stretches also help to develop strength in the “tensed” muscles (which helps to develop static-active flexibility) and seems to decrease the amount of pain usually associated with stretching.
The most common ways to provide the needed resistance for an isometric stretch are to apply resistance manually to one’s own limbs, to have a partner apply the resistance, or to use an apparatus such as a wall or the floor to provide resistance.
Isometric stretching is not recommended for children and adolescents whose bones are still growing. These people are usually already flexible enough that the strong stretches produced by the isometric contraction have a much higher risk of damaging tendons and connective tissue. Precede any isometric stretch of a muscle with dynamic strength training for the muscle to be stretched. A full session of isometric stretching makes a lot of demands on the muscles being stretched and should not be performed more than once per day for a given group of muscles, ideally, no more than once every 36 hours.
The proper way to perform an isometric stretch is as follows:
Assume the position of a passive stretch for the desired muscle.
Tense the stretched muscle for 7-15 seconds (resisting against some force that will not move, like the floor or a partner).
Finally, relax the muscle for at least 20 seconds.
Some people seem to recommend holding the isometric contraction for longer than 15 seconds; research has shown that this is not necessary. So, you might as well make your stretching routine less time consuming.
How Isometric Stretching Works
Recall, there is no such thing as a partially contracted muscle fibre: when a muscle is contracted, some of the fibres contract and some remain at rest (more fibres are recruited as the load on the muscle increases). Similarly, when a muscle is stretched, some of the fibres are elongated and some remain at rest. During an isometric contraction, some of the resting fibres are being pulled upon from both ends by the muscles that are contracting. The result is that some of those resting fibres stretch.
Normally, the fibres that stretch during an isometric contraction are not very significant. The true effectiveness of the isometric contraction occurs when a muscle that is already in a stretched position is subjected to an isometric contraction. In this case, some of the muscle fibres are already stretched before the contraction and if held long enough the initial passive stretch overcomes the stretch reflex and triggers the lengthening reaction inhibiting the stretched fibres from contracting.
At this point: When isometrically contracted, some of the resting fibres would contract, many of the resting fibres would stretch, and many of the already stretched fibres, which are being prevented from contracting by the inverse myotatic reflex [the lengthening reaction], would stretch even more. When the isometric contraction was relaxed, and the contracting fibres returned to their resting length, the stretched fibres would retain their ability to stretch beyond their normal limit. I.e. The whole muscle would be able to stretch beyond its initial maximum, and you would have increased flexibility.
The reason that the stretched fibres develop and retain the ability to stretch beyond their normal limit during an isometric stretch has to do with the muscle spindles: The signal which tells the muscle to contract voluntarily, also tells the muscle spindle’s (intrafusal) muscle fibres to shorten, increasing sensitivity of the stretch reflex. This mechanism normally maintains the sensitivity of the muscle spindle as the muscle shortens during contraction. This allows the muscle spindles to habituate to an even further-lengthened position.
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) – PNF stretching is currently the fastest and most effective way known to increase static-passive flexibility. It is not really a type of stretching but is a technique of combining passive stretching and isometric stretching to achieve maximum static flexibility. The term PNF stretching is itself a misnomer. PNF was initially developed as a method of rehabilitating stroke victims. PNF refers to any of several post-isometric relaxation stretching techniques in which a muscle group is passively stretched, then contracts isometrically against resistance while in the stretched position, and then is passively stretched again through the resulting increased range of motion. PNF stretching usually employs the use of a partner to provide resistance against the isometric contraction and then later to passively take the joint through its increased range of motion. It may be performed, however, without a partner, although it is usually more effective with a partner’s assistance.
Most PNF stretching techniques employ isometric agonist contraction/relaxation where the stretched muscles are contracted isometrically and then relaxed. Some PNF techniques also employ isometric antagonist contraction where the antagonists of the stretched muscles are contracted. In all cases, it is important to note that the stretched muscle should be rested (and relaxed) for at least 20 seconds before performing another PNF technique. The most common PNF stretching techniques are:
The hold-relax – This technique is also called the contract-relax. After assuming an initial passive stretch, the muscle being stretched is isometrically contracted for 7-15 seconds, after which the muscle is briefly relaxed for 2-3 seconds, and then immediately subjected to a passive stretch which stretches the muscle even further than the initial passive stretch. This final passive stretch is held for 10-15 seconds. The muscle is then relaxed for 20 seconds before performing another PNF technique.
The hold-relax-contract – This technique is also called the contract-relax-contract, and the contract-relax-antagonist-contract (or CRAC). It involves performing two isometric contractions: first of the agonists, then, of the antagonists. The first part is like the hold-relax where, after assuming an initial passive stretch, the stretched muscle is isometrically contracted for 7-15 seconds. Then the muscle is relaxed while its antagonist immediately performs an isometric contraction that is held for 7-15 seconds. The muscles are then relaxed for 20 seconds before performing another PNF technique.
The hold-relax-swing – This technique (and a similar technique called the hold-relax-bounce) involves the use of dynamic or ballistic stretches in conjunction with static and isometric stretches. It is very risky and is successfully used only by the most advanced of athletes that have managed to achieve a high level of control over their muscle stretch reflex). It is like the hold-relax technique except that a dynamic or ballistic stretch is employed in place of the final passive stretch.
Notice that in the hold-relax-contract, there is no final passive stretch. It is replaced by the antagonist-contraction which, via reciprocal inhibition serves to relax and further stretch the muscle that was subjected to the initial passive stretch. Because there is no final passive stretch, this PNF technique is considered one of the safest PNF techniques to perform as it is less likely to result in torn muscle tissue. Some people like to make the technique even more intense by adding the final passive stretch after the second isometric contraction. Although this can result in greater flexibility gains, it also increases the likelihood of injury.
Even more risky are dynamic and ballistic PNF stretching techniques like the hold-relax-swing, and the hold-relax-bounce. If you are not a professional athlete, you probably have no business attempting either of these techniques as the probability of injury is great). Even professionals should not attempt these techniques without the guidance of a professional coach or training advisor. These two techniques have the greatest potential for rapid flexibility gains, but only when performed by people who have a sufficiently high level of control of the stretch reflex in the muscles that are being stretched.
Like isometric stretching PNF stretching is also not recommended for children and people whose bones are still growing (for the same reasons. Also, like isometric stretching, PNF stretching helps strengthen the muscles that are contracted and therefore is good for increasing active flexibility as well as passive flexibility. Furthermore, as with isometric stretching, PNF stretching is very strenuous and should be performed for a given muscle group no more than once per day (ideally, no more than once per 36-hour period).
The initial recommended procedure for PNF stretching is to perform the desired PNF technique 3-5 times for a given muscle group, resting 20 seconds between each repetition. However, a 1987 study whose results suggest that performing 3-5 repetitions of a PNF technique for a given muscle group is not necessarily any more effective than performing the technique only once. As a result, to decrease the amount of time taken up by your stretching routine, without decreasing its effectiveness), perform only one PNF technique per muscle group stretched in a given stretching session.
How PNF Stretching Works
During an isometric stretch, when the muscle performing the isometric contraction is relaxed, it retains its ability to stretch beyond its initial maximum length. PNF takes immediate advantage of this increased range of motion by immediately subjecting the contracted muscle to a passive stretch.
The isometric contraction of the stretched muscle accomplishes several things:
It helps to train the stretch receptors of the muscle spindle to immediately accommodate a greater muscle length.
The intense muscle contraction, and the fact that it is maintained for a period, serves to fatigue many of the fast-twitch fibres of the contracting muscles. This makes it harder for the fatigued muscle fibres to contract in resistance to a subsequent stretch.
The tension generated by the contraction activates the Golgi tendon which inhibits contraction of the muscle via the lengthening reaction. Voluntary contraction during a stretch increases tension on the muscle, activating the Golgi tendon organs more than the stretch alone. So, when the voluntary contraction is stopped, the muscle is even more inhibited from contracting against a subsequent stretch.
PNF stretching techniques take advantage of the sudden “vulnerability” of the muscle and its increased range of motion by using the period immediately following the isometric contraction to train the stretch receptors to get used to this new, increased, range of muscle length. This is what the final passive (or in some cases, dynamic) stretch accomplishes.
Benefits of Stretching
Stretching can do more than just increase flexibility. Benefits of stretching include:
Enhanced physical fitness.
Enhanced ability to learn and perform skilled movements.
Increased mental and physical relaxation.
Enhanced development of body awareness.
Reduced risk of injury to joints, muscles, and tendons.
Reduced muscular soreness.
Reduced muscular tension.
Increased suppleness due to stimulation of the production of chemicals which lubricate connective tissues.
Reduced severity of painful menstruation (dysmenorrhea) in females.
Unfortunately, even those who stretch do not always stretch properly and hence do not reap some or all these benefits. Some of the most common mistakes made when stretching:
improper warm-up
inadequate rest between workouts
overstretching
performing the wrong exercises
performing exercises in the wrong (or sub-optimal) sequence
Tiger Athletic Fitness & Conditioning uses personal training to assess, motivate, educate and train you in a private, modern appointment only strength and conditioning in the heart of Sandton. Our rigorous pre-participation health appraisal screening process ensures that we design and deliver comprehensive exercise programs that safely and effectively meet your goals. Start your own Tiger Athletic fitness program by booking your initial interview.
Together changes everything. Let’s workout!
Acknowledgement.
Sport Stretch, by Michael J. Alter.
Stretching Scientifically, by Tom
SynerStretch for Total Body Flexibility, from Health for Life.
The Health for Life Training Advisor, also from Health for Life.
Mobility Training for the Martial Arts, by Tony Gummerson.
Tiger Athletic Fitness & Conditioning is a private, appointment only strength & conditioning gym in the heart of Sandton offering tailor made, goal-oriented fitness programs. This is the second of three resources, a modest attempt to address some of the frequently asked questions about stretching and flexibility. Here we take a closer look at flexibility.
Many people are unaware of the fact that there are different types of flexibility. These different types of flexibility are grouped according to the various types of activities involved in athletic training. The ones which involve motion are called dynamic and the ones which do not are called static. The different types of flexibility are:
Dynamic flexibility – also called kinetic flexibility is the ability to perform dynamic (or kinetic) movements of the muscles to bring a limb through its full range of motion in the joints.
Static-active flexibility – Static-active flexibility also called active flexibility is the ability to assume and maintain extended positions using only the tension of the agonists and synergists while the antagonists are being stretched. For example, lifting the leg and keeping it high without any external support.
Static-passive flexibility – also called passive flexibility is the ability to assume extended positions and then maintain them using only your weight, the support of your limbs, or some other apparatus (such as a chair). Note that the ability to maintain the position does not come solely from your muscles, as it does with static-active flexibility. Being able to perform the splits is an example of static-passive flexibility.
Research has shown that active flexibility is more closely related to the level of sports achievement than is passive flexibility. Active flexibility is harder to develop than passive flexibility (which is what most people think of as “flexibility”); not only does active flexibility require passive flexibility to assume an initial extended position, it also requires muscle strength to be able to hold and maintain that position.
Factors Limiting Flexibility
Flexibility (mobility) is affected by the following factors:
Internal influences.
The type of joint (some joints simply aren’t meant to be flexible).
The internal resistance within a joint.
Bony structures which limit movement.
The elasticity of muscle tissue (muscle tissue that is scarred due to a previous injury is not very elastic).
The elasticity of tendons and ligaments (ligaments do not stretch much, tendons should not stretch at all).
The elasticity of skin (skin has some degree of elasticity, but not much).
The ability of a muscle to relax and contract to achieve the greatest range of movement.
The temperature of the joint and associated tissues (joints and muscles offer better flexibility at body temperatures that are 1 to 2 degrees higher than normal).
External influences
The temperature of the place where one is training (a warmer temperature is more conducive to increased flexibility).
The time of day (most people are more flexible in the afternoon than in the morning, peaking from about 2:30pm-4pm).
The stage in the recovery process of a joint (or muscle) after injury (injured joints and muscles will usually offer less flexibility than healthy ones).
Age (pre-adolescents are generally more flexible than adults).
Gender (females are generally more flexible than males).
One’s ability to perform an exercise (practice makes perfect).
One’s commitment to achieving flexibility.
The restrictions of any clothing or equipment.
Some sources also suggest that water is an important dietary element regardsflexibility. Increased water intake is believed to contribute to increased mobility, as well as increased total body relaxation.
Rather than discuss each of these factors in significant detail, I will attempt to focus on some of the more common factors which limit one’s flexibility. The most common factors are:
Bone structure – Depending on the type of joint involved and its present condition, the bone structure of a joint places very noticeable limits on flexibility. This is a common way in which age can be a factor limiting flexibility since older joints tend not to be as healthy as younger ones.
Muscle mass – Muscle mass can be a factor when the muscle is so heavily developed that it interferes with the ability to take the adjacent joints through their complete range of motion (for example, large hamstrings limit the ability to fully bend the knees).
Excess fatty tissue – Excess fatty tissue imposes a similar restriction.
Connective tissue – Most of “flexibility” work should involve performing exercises designed to reduce the internal resistance offered by soft connective tissues.
Physical injury or disability – Most stretching exercises attempt to accomplish this goal and can be performed by almost anyone, regardless of age or gender.
How Connective Tissue Affects Flexibility
The resistance to lengthening that is offered by a muscle is dependent upon its connective tissues: When the muscle elongates, the surrounding connective tissues become tauter. Also, inactivity of certain muscles or joints can cause chemical changes in connective tissue which restrict flexibility. To quote Michael J Alter directly:
“A question of great interest to all athletes is the relative importance of various tissues in joint stiffness. The joint capsule (i.e., the saclike structure that encloses the ends of bones) and ligaments are the most important factors, accounting for 47 percent of the stiffness, followed by the muscle’s fascia (41 percent), the tendons (10 percent), and skin (2 percent). However, most efforts to increase flexibility through stretching should be directed to the muscle fascia. The reasons for this are twofold.
First, muscle and its fascia have more elastic tissue, so they are more modifiable in terms of reducing resistance to elongation.
Second, because ligaments and tendons have less elasticity than fascia, it is undesirable to produce too much slack in them. Overstretching these structures may weaken the integrity of joints.
As a result, an excessive amount of flexibility may destabilize the joints and increase an athlete’s risk of injury.” When connective tissue is overused, the tissue becomes fatigued and may tear, which also limits flexibility. When connective tissue is unused or under used, it provides significant resistance and limits flexibility. The elastin begins to fray and loses some of its elasticity, and the collagen increases in stiffness and in density. Aging has some of the same effects on connective tissue that lack of use has.
How Flexibility Affects Ageing
With appropriate training, flexibility can, and should, be developed at all ages. This does not imply, however, that flexibility can be developed at the same rate by everyone. In general, the older you are, the longer it will take to develop the desired level of flexibility. Hopefully, you’ll be more patient if you’re older.
According to Michael J Alter, the main reason we become less flexible as we get older is a result of certain changes that take place in our connective tissues:
“The primary factor responsible for the decline of flexibility with age is certain changes that occur in the connective tissues of the body. Interestingly, it has been suggested that exercise can delay the loss of flexibility due to the aging process of dehydration. This is based on the notion that stretching stimulates the production or retention of lubricants between the connective tissue fibres, thus preventing the formation of adhesions.”
Michael J Alter further states that some of the physical changes attributed to aging are the following:
An increased amount of calcium deposits, adhesions, and cross-links in the body
An increase in the level of fragmentation and dehydration
Changes in the chemical structure of the tissues.
Loss of suppleness due to the replacement of muscle fibres with fatty, collagenous fibres.
This does not mean that you should give up trying to achieve flexibility if you are old or inflexible. It just means that you need to work harder, and more carefully, for a longer period when attempting to increase flexibility. Increases in the ability of muscle tissues and connective tissues to elongate can be achieved at any age.
Strength and Flexibility
One of the best times to stretch is right after a strength workout such as weightlifting. Static stretching of fatigued muscles performed immediately following the exercise(s) that caused the fatigue, helps not only to increase flexibility, but also enhances the promotion of muscular development, and will help decrease the level of post-exercise soreness. Here’s why: After you have used weights (or other stimuli) to overload and fatigue your muscles, your muscles retain a “pump” and are shortened somewhat.
This “shortening” is due mostly to the repetition of intense muscle activity that often only takes the muscle through part of its full range of motion. This “pump” makes the muscle appear bigger. The “pumped” muscle is also full of lactic acid and other by-products from exhaustive exercise. If the muscle is not stretched afterward, it will retain this decreased range of motion and the build-up of lactic acid will cause post-exercise soreness.
Static stretching of the “pumped” muscle helps it to become “looser”, and to “remember” its full range of movement. It also helps to remove lactic acid and other waste-products from the muscle. While it is true that stretching the “pumped” muscle will make it appear visibly smaller, it does not decrease the muscle’s size or inhibit muscle growth. It merely reduces the “tightness” (contraction) of the muscles so that they do not “bulge” as much.
Also, strenuous workouts will often cause damage to the muscle’s connective tissue. The tissue heals in 1 to 2 days, but it is believed that the tissues heal at a shorter length (decreasing muscular development as well as flexibility). To prevent the tissues from healing at a shorter length, physiologists recommend static stretching after strength workouts.
Why Contortionists Should Strengthen
You should be “tempering” (or balancing) your flexibility training with strength training (and vice versa). Do not perform stretching exercises for a given muscle group without also performing strength exercises for that same group of muscles. Judy Alter, in her book Stretch and Strengthen, recommends stretching muscles after performing strength exercises, and performing strength exercises for every muscle you stretch. In other words: “Strengthen what you stretch and stretch what you strengthen!”
The reason for this is that flexibility training on a regular basis causes connective tissues to stretch which in turn causes them to loosen and elongate. When the connective tissue of a muscle is weak, it is more likely to become damaged due to overstretching, or sudden, powerful muscular contractions. The likelihood of such injury can be prevented by strengthening the muscles bound by the connective tissue.
Dynamic strength training consisting of light dynamic exercises with weights (lots of reps, not too much weight), and isometric tension exercises. If you also lift weights, dynamic strength training for a muscle should occur before subjecting that muscle to an intense weightlifting workout. This helps to pre-exhaust the muscle first, making it easier (and faster) to achieve the desired overload in an intense strength workout. Attempting to perform dynamic strength training after an intense weightlifting workout would be largely ineffective.
If you are working on increasing (or maintaining) flexibility, then it is very important that your strength exercises force your muscles to take the joints through their full range of motion. Repeating movements that do not use a full range of motion in the joints (e.g., bicycling, certain techniques of Olympic weightlifting, pushups) can cause a shortening of the muscles surrounding the joints of the working limbs. This shortening is a result of setting the nervous control of length and tension in the muscles at the values repeated most often or most strongly. Stronger stimuli are remembered better.
Over flexibility
It is possible for the muscles of a joint to become too flexible. There is a trade-off between flexibility and stability. The looser you get, the less support offered to the joints by their adjacent muscles. Excessive flexibility can be just as much of a liability as not enough flexibility. Either one increases your risk of injury.
Once a muscle has reached its absolute maximum length, attempting to stretch the muscle further only serves to stretch the ligaments and put undue stress upon the tendons (two things that you do not want to stretch). Ligaments will tear when stretched more than 6% of their normal length. Tendons are not even supposed to be able to lengthen. Even when stretched ligaments and tendons do not tear, loose joints and/or a decrease in the joint’s stability can occur vastly increasing the risk of injury.
Once you have achieved the desired level of flexibility for a muscle or set of muscles and have maintained that level for a solid week, you should discontinue any isometric or PNF stretching of that muscle until some of its flexibility is lost.
Tiger Athletic Fitness & Conditioning uses personal training to assess, motivate, educate and train you in a private, modern appointment only strength and conditioning in the heart of Sandton. Our rigorous pre-participation health appraisal screening process ensures that we design and deliver comprehensive exercise programs that safely and effectively meet your goals. Start your own Tiger Athletic fitness program by booking your initial interview.
Together changes everything. Let’s workout!
Acknowledgement.
Sport Stretch, by Michael J. Alter.
Stretching Scientifically, by Tom
SynerStretch for Total Body Flexibility, from Health for Life.
The Health for Life Training Advisor, also from Health for Life.
Mobility Training for the Martial Arts, by Tony Gummerson.
Tiger Athletic Fitness & Conditioning is a private, appointment only strength & conditioning gym in the heart of Sandton offering tailor made, goal-oriented fitness programs. This is the first of three resources, a modest attempt to address some of the frequently asked questions about stretching and flexibility, beginning with the physiology of stretching.
Physiology of Stretching
An introduction to some of the basic physiological concepts that come into play when a muscle is stretched as well as a general overview of basic concepts.
The Musculoskeletal System – Muscles and bones comprise what is called the musculoskeletal system of the body. The bones provide posture and structural support for the body and the muscles provide the body with the ability to move (by contracting, and thus generating tension). The musculoskeletal system also provides protection for the body’s internal organs. To serve their function, bones must be joined together by something. The point where bones connect to one another is called a joint, and this connection is made mostly by ligaments (along with the help of muscles). Muscles are attached to the bone by tendons. Bones, tendons, and ligaments do not possess the ability (as muscles do) to make your body move. Muscles are unique in this respect.
Muscle Composition – Muscles vary in shape and in size and serve many different purposes. Most large muscles, like the hamstrings and quadriceps, control motion. Other muscles, like the heart, and the muscles of the inner ear, perform other functions. At the microscopic level however, all muscles share the same basic structure. At the highest level, the muscle is composed of many strands of tissue called fascicles. Each fascicle is composed of fasciculi which are bundles of muscle fibres. The muscle fibres are in turn composed of tens of thousands of thread-like myofibrils, which can contract, relax, and lengthen. The myofibrils are composed of up to millions of bands laid end-to-end called sarcomeres. Each sarcomere is made of overlapping thick and thin filaments called myofilaments. The thick and thin myofilaments are made up of contractile proteins, primarily actin and myosin.
Connective Tissue – Located all around the muscle and its fibres are connective tissues. Connective tissue is composed of a base substance and two kinds of protein-based fibre. The two types of fibre are collagenous connective tissue and elastic connective tissue. Collagenous connective tissue consists mostly of collagen and provides tensile strength. Elastic connective tissue consists mostly of elastin and provides elasticity. The base substance is called mucopolysaccharide and acts as both a lubricant, allowing the fibres to easily slide over one another, and as glue, holding the fibres of the tissue together into bundles. The more elastic connective tissue there is around a joint, the greater the range of motion in that joint. Connective tissues are made up of tendons, ligaments, and the fascial sheaths that envelop, or bind down, muscles into separate groups. These fascial sheaths, or fascia, are named according to where they are in the muscles:
Endomysium – the innermost fascial sheath that envelops individual muscle fibres.
Perimysium – The fascial sheath that binds groups of muscle fibres into individual fasciculi.
Epimysium – The outermost fascial sheath that binds entire fascicles.
These connective tissues help provide suppleness and tone to the muscles.
Co-operating Muscle Groups – When muscles cause a limb to move through the joint’s range of motion, they usually act in the following cooperating groups:
Agonists – These muscles cause the movement to occur. They create the normal range of movement in a joint by contracting. Agonists are also referred to as prime movers since they are the muscles that are primarily responsible for generating the movement.
Antagonists – These muscles act in opposition to the movement generated by the agonists and are responsible for returning a limb to its initial position.
Synergists – These muscles perform, or assist in performing, the same set of joint motion as the agonists. Synergists are sometimes referred to as neutralizers because they help cancel out, or neutralize, extra motion from the agonists to make sure that the force generated works within the desired plane of motion.
Fixators – These muscles provide the necessary support to assist in holding the rest of the body in place while the movement occurs. Fixators are also sometimes called stabilizers.
When you flex your knee for example, your hamstring contracts, and, to some extent, so does your gastrocnemius and lower buttocks. Meanwhile, your quadriceps are inhibited (relaxed and lengthened somewhat) so as not to resist the flexion (see section Reciprocal Inhibition). In this example, the hamstring serves as the agonist, or prime mover; the quadriceps serves as the antagonist; and the calf and lower buttocks serve as the synergists.
Agonists and antagonists are usually located on opposite sides of the affected joint (like your hamstrings and quadriceps, or your triceps and biceps), while synergists are usually located on the same side of the joint near the agonists. Larger muscles often call upon their smaller neighbours to function as synergists.
The following is a list of commonly used agonist/antagonist muscle pairs:
pectorals/latissimus dorsi (pecs and lats)
anterior deltoids/posterior deltoids (front and back shoulder)
trapezius/deltoids (traps and delts)
abdominals/spinal erectors (abs and lower-back)
left and right external obliques (sides)
quadriceps/hamstrings (quads and hams)
shins/calves
biceps/triceps
forearm flexors/extensors
Types of Muscle Contractions
What happens When You Stretch?
How Muscles Contract
The way in which all these various levels of the muscle operate is as follows:
Nerves connect the spinal column to the muscle.
The place where the nerve and muscle meet are called the neuromuscular junction.
When an electrical signal crosses the neuromuscular junction, it is transmitted deep inside the muscle fibres. Inside the muscle fibres, the signal stimulates the flow of calcium which causes the thick and thin myofilaments to slide across one another. When this occurs, it causes the sarcomere to shorten, which generates force. When billions of sarcomeres in the muscle shorten all at once it results in a contraction of the entire muscle fibre.
A muscle fibre contracts completely. There is no such thing as a partially contracted muscle fibre. Muscle fibres are unable to vary the intensity of their contraction relative to the load against which they are acting. If this is so, then how does the force of a muscle contraction vary in strength from strong to weak? What happens is that more muscle fibres are recruited, as they are needed, to perform the job at hand. The more muscle fibres recruited by the central nervous system, the stronger the force generated by the muscular contraction.
Fast and Slow Muscle Fibres
The energy which produces the calcium flow in the muscle fibres comes from mitochondria, the part of the muscle cell that converts glucose (blood sugar) into energy. Different types of muscle fibres have different amounts of mitochondria. The more mitochondria in a muscle fibre, the more energy it can produce. Muscle fibres are categorized into slow-twitch fibres and fast-twitch fibres.
Slow-twitch fibres (Type 1) are slow to contract, but they are also very slow to fatigue. Fast-twitch fibres are very quick to contract and come in two varieties: Type 2A muscle fibres which fatigue at an intermediate rate, and Type 2B muscle fibres which fatigue very quickly. The main reason the slow-twitch fibres are slow to fatigue is that they contain more mitochondria than fast-twitch fibres and hence can produce more energy. Slow-twitch fibres are also smaller in diameter than fast-twitch fibres and have increased capillary blood flow around them. Because they have a smaller diameter and an increased blood flow, the slow-twitch fibres can deliver more oxygen and remove more waste products from the muscle fibres.
These three muscle fibre types (Types 1, 2A, and 2B) are contained in all muscles in varying amounts. Muscles that need to be contracted much of the time (like the heart) have a greater number of Type 1 (slow) fibres. According to Health for Life Training Advisor:
When a muscle begins to contract, primarily Type 1 fibres are activated first, and then Type 2A, then 2B. This sequence of fibre recruitment allows very delicate and finely tuned muscle responses to brain commands. It also makes Type 2B fibres difficult to train; most of the Type 1 and 2A fibres must be activated already before a large percentage of the 2B fibres participate.
Health for Life Training Advisor further states that the best way to remember the difference between muscles with predominantly slow-twitch fibres and muscles with predominantly fast-twitch fibres is to think of “white meat” and “dark meat”. Dark meat is dark because it has a greater number of slow-twitch muscle fibres and hence a greater number of mitochondria, which are dark. White meat consists mostly of muscle fibres which are at rest much of the time but are frequently called on to engage in brief bouts of intense activity. This muscle tissue can contract quickly but is fast to fatigue and slow to recover. White meat is lighter in colour than dark meat because it contains fewer mitochondria.
Types of Muscle Contractions
The contraction of a muscle does not only mean that the muscle shortens; it means that tension has been generated. Muscles can contract in the following ways:
Isometric contraction – This is a contraction in which no movement takes place, because the load on the muscle exceeds the tension generated by the contracting muscle. This occurs when a muscle attempts to push or pull an immovable object.
Concentric contraction – the muscles that are shortening serve as the agonists and hence do all the work. During an eccentric contraction the muscles that are lengthening serve as the agonists.
Isotonic contraction – This is a contraction in which movement does take place, because the tension generated by the contracting muscle exceeds the load on the muscle. This occurs when you use your muscles to successfully push or pull an object.
Isotonic contractions are further divided into two types:
Concentric contraction – This is a contraction in which the muscle decreases in length (shortens) against an opposing load, such as lifting a weight up.
Eccentric contraction – This is a contraction in which the muscle increases in length (lengthens) as it resists a load, such as pushing something down.
What Happens When You Stretch?
The stretching of a muscle fibre begins with the sarcomere, the basic unit of contraction in the muscle fibre. The sarcomere contracts, the area of overlap between the thick and thin myofilaments increases. As it stretches, this area of overlap decreases, allowing the muscle fibre to elongate. Once the muscle fibre is at its maximum resting length, additional stretching places force on the surrounding connective tissue. As the tension increases, the collagen fibres in the connective tissue align themselves along the same line of force as the tension.
Hence when you stretch, the muscle fibre is pulled out to its full-length sarcomere by sarcomere, and then the connective tissue takes up the remaining slack. When this occurs, it helps to realign any disorganized fibres in the direction of the tension. This realignment is what helps to rehabilitate scarred tissue back to health.
When a muscle is stretched, some of its fibres lengthen, but other fibres may remain at rest. The current length of the entire muscle depends upon the number of stretched fibres.
Picture little pockets of fibres distributed throughout the muscle body stretching, and other fibres simply going along for the ride. Just as the total strength of a contracting muscle is a result of the number of fibres contracting, the total length of a stretched muscle is a result of the number of fibres stretched — the more fibres stretched, the more length developed by the muscle for a given stretch.
Proprioceptors – The nerve endings that relay all the information about the musculoskeletal system to the central nervous system are called proprioceptors. Proprioceptors, also called mechanoreceptors are the source of all proprioception: the perception of one’s own body position and movement. The proprioceptors detect any changes in physical displacement (movement or position) and any changes in tension, or force, within the body. They are found in all nerve endings of the joints, muscles, and tendons. The proprioceptors related to stretching are in the tendons and in the muscle fibres.
There are two kinds of muscle fibres: intrafusal muscle fibres and extrafusal muscle fibres. Extrafusal fibres are the ones that contain myofibrils and are what is usually meant when we talk about muscle fibres. Intrafusal fibres are also called muscle spindles and lie parallel to the extrafusal fibres. Muscle spindles, or stretch receptors, are the primary proprioceptors in the muscle.
Another proprioceptor that comes into play during stretching is in the tendon near the end of the muscle fibre and is called the Golgi tendon organ. A third type of proprioceptor, called a Pacinian corpuscle, is located close to the Golgi tendon organ and is responsible for detecting changes in movement and pressure within the body.
When the extrafusal fibres of a muscle lengthen, so do the intrafusal fibres. The muscle spindle contains two different types of fibres (or stretch receptors) which are sensitive to the change in muscle length and the rate of change in muscle length. When muscles contract, tension is placed on the tendons where the Golgi tendon organ is located. The Golgi tendon organ is sensitive to the change in tension and the rate of change of the tension.
The Stretch Reflex – When the muscle is stretched, so is the muscle spindle. The muscle spindle records the change in length (and speed) and sends signals to the spine which convey this information. This triggers the stretch reflex (myotatic reflex) which attempts to resist the change in muscle length by causing the stretched muscle to contract. The more sudden the change in muscle length, the stronger the muscle contractions will be (plyometric training is based on this fact). This basic function of the muscle spindle helps to maintain muscle tone and to protect the body from injury.
One of the reasons for holding a stretch for a prolonged period is that as you hold the muscle in a stretched position, the muscle spindle habituates and reduces its signalling. Gradually, you can train your stretch receptors to allow greater lengthening of the muscles.
Some sources suggest that with extensive training, the stretch reflex of certain muscles can be controlled so that there is little or no reflex contraction in response to a sudden stretch. While this type of control provides the opportunity for the greatest gains in flexibility, it also provides the greatest risk of injury if used improperly. Professional athletes and martial artists at the top of their sport are believed to possess this level of muscular control.
The stretch reflex has both a dynamic component and a static component. The static component of the stretch reflex persists if the muscle is being stretched. The dynamic component of the stretch reflex lasts for only a moment and is in response to the initial sudden increase in muscle length. The reason that the stretch reflex has two components is because there are two kinds of intrafusal muscle fibres: nuclear chain fibres, which are responsible for the static component; and nuclear bag fibres, which are responsible for the dynamic component.
Nuclear chain fibres are long and thin and lengthen steadily when stretched. When these fibres are stretched, the stretch reflex nerves increase their firing rates as their length steadily increases. This is the static component of the stretch reflex.
Nuclear bag fibres bulge out at the middle, where they are the most elastic. The stretch-sensing nerve ending for these fibres is wrapped around this middle area, which lengthens rapidly when the fibre is stretched. The outer-middle areas, in contrast, act like they are filled with viscous fluid; they resist fast stretching, gradually extend under prolonged tension. So, when a fast stretch is demanded of these fibres, the middle takes most of the stretch at first; then, as the outer-middle parts extend, the middle can shorten somewhat.
So, the nerve that senses stretching in these fibres fires rapidly with the onset of a fast stretch, then slows as the middle section of the fibre can shorten again. This is the dynamic component of the stretch reflex: a strong signal to contract at the onset of a rapid increase in muscle length, followed by slightly “higher than normal” signalling which gradually decreases as the rate of change of the muscle length decreases.
The Lengthening Reaction – When muscles contract, they produce tension at the point where the muscle is connected to the tendon, where the Golgi tendon organ is located. The Golgi tendon organ records the change in tension, and the rate of change of the tension, and sends signals to the spine to convey this information. When this tension exceeds a certain threshold, it triggers the lengthening reaction which inhibits the muscles from contracting and causes them to relax.
Other names for this reflex are the inverse myotatic reflex, autogenic inhibition, and the clasped-knife reflex. This basic function of the Golgi tendon organ helps to protect the muscles, tendons, and ligaments from injury. The lengthening reaction is possible only because the signalling of Golgi tendon organ to the spinal cord is powerful enough to overcome the signalling of the muscle spindles telling the muscle to contract.
Another reason for holding a stretch for a prolonged period is to allow this lengthening reaction to occur, thus helping the stretched muscles to relax. It is easier to stretch, or lengthen, a muscle when it is not trying to contract.
Reciprocal Inhibition – When an agonist contracts, to cause the desired motion, it usually forces the antagonists to relax. This phenomenon is called reciprocal inhibition because the antagonists are inhibited from contracting. This is sometimes called reciprocal innervation, but that term is really a misnomer since it is the agonists which inhibit the antagonists. The antagonists do not actually innervate the agonists.
Such inhibition of the antagonistic muscles is not necessarily required. In fact, co-contraction can occur. When you perform a sit-up, one would normally assume that the stomach muscles inhibit the contraction of the muscles in the lumbar, or lower, region of the back. In this instance however, the back muscles (spinal erectors) also contract. This is one reason why sit-ups are good for strengthening the back as well as the stomach.
When stretching, it is easier to stretch a muscle that is relaxed than to stretch a muscle that is contracting. By taking advantage of the situations when reciprocal inhibition does occur, you can get a more effective stretch by inducing the antagonists to relax during the stretch due to the contraction of the agonists. You also want to relax any muscles used as synergists by the muscle you are trying to stretch. For example, when you stretch your calf, you want to contract the shin muscles by flexing your foot. However, the hamstrings use the calf as a synergist, so you want to also relax the hamstrings by contracting the quadriceps.
Tiger Athletic Fitness & Conditioning uses personal training to assess, motivate, educate and train you in a private, modern appointment only strength and conditioning in the heart of Sandton. Our rigorous pre-participation health appraisal screening process ensures that we design and deliver comprehensive exercise programs that safely and effectively meet your goals. Start your own Tiger Athletic fitness program by booking your initial interview.
Together changes everything. Let’s workout!
Acknowledgement.
Sport Stretch, by Michael J. Alter.
Stretching Scientifically, by Tom
SynerStretch for Total Body Flexibility, from Health for Life.
The Health for Life Training Advisor, also from Health for Life.
Mobility Training for the Martial Arts, by Tony Gummerson.
Body weight exercises that work the thigh, calf and glute muscles are generally performed in the upright, seated, and all-fours positions. Increasing the difficulty of exercises in this class is usually accomplished through unilateral modifications (performed on one leg) or providing additional weight over and above the individual’s own body weight.
The word calisthenics comes from the ancient Greek words kálos (κάλλος), which means “beauty”, and sthénos (σθένος), meaning “strength”. It is the art of using one’s body weight and qualities of inertia to develop one’s physique. A longstanding urban legend has claimed that the exercise was named after one of its earliest promotors, the Greek historian Callisthenes.
Calisthenics is a smart, scientific approach to weight loss, strength gain and living a more active, fulfilling life. This is the fifth resource in our series on calisthenics, designed so you can workout in privacy of your home or on location when travelling and can’t attend your sessions with your Tiger Athletic personal trainer without the aid of equipment, a trainer or supplements and begin to understand that you too can get healthy using just your body, the physical environment and a little imagination.
Calf Raises
Start with both feet on the edge of a raised surface, with the toes on the surface and the heels lower than the toes. The heels are raised as high as possible, then returned to the starting position. The difficulty may be increased by performing the exercise on one leg.
Variation
The Cliff Hanger – place on foot on the surface and hold the position held to failure in isometric tension.
Donkey Calf Raises – bend the waist to about 90 degrees and rest the arms on a stable surface.
Little Piggies – heels on the surface, moves the toes foot upwards (dorsi flexion)
Muscle Groups
Calves
Squat
Start in a standing position with feet shoulder width apart. The legs are bent at the knees and hips, and the torso is lowered between the legs. Hold this position for a count of 1 and stand return to the start position. The knees should remain behind the toes always.
Variation
Invisible Chair – back against the wall, feet one step away from the wall, knees bent at 90 degrees. Hold position to failure.
Wall Squat – back against the wall, feet one step forward from the wall. Slides down the wall until your knees are bent to a 90-degree angle then slide up to the start position.
Sumo Squat – performed with a wide stance, the body is lowered until the thighs are parallel to the ground.
One-Legged Squat – performed with one leg held out straight in front of the body while the other leg bears your full weight during the squat.
Pistol Squat – builds on the One-Legged Squat and brings the buttocks all the way down to the heel of the foot on the ground. This variety of squats is made to challenge your balance.
Bulgarian Split Squat – Put the rear leg on a bench, drop straight down, and make sure that the front heel always stays in contact with the ground to avoid any excess stress on the knees. Retain a tall posture throughout the whole exercise. These can work the abs, quads and glutes, as well as the ability to stabilize. Moreover, 3 sets of 6-10 reps do the job to satisfaction.
Sissy Squat – uses a pole or other support to hold with one hand, while the body leans backward through the squat until the buttocks are resting on the heels.
Good Mornings
Start in a standing position, hands behind the head. The body is bent at the waist and the back is kept straight until the legs and torso form a 90-degree angle. The torso is returned slowly to the starting position.
Muscle Groups
Glutes
Hamstrings
Lower back
Dirty Dogs
Start in an all-fours position, then lifts one knee off the ground and swings the knee out to the side as far as possible, maintaining the bent knee at a 90-degree angle. The leg is then returned to the starting position and the exercise is then performed with the other leg.
Variation
Mule Kick variant is performed by straightening the leg as it is lifted away from the body as high as possible.
Muscle Groups
Glutes
Lower back
Hip flexors
Standing Side Leg Lift
Stand with their feet hip-width apart. The leg is lifted to the side in a slow, controlled manner until it forms a 45-degree angle with the stationary leg. The leg is then returned to the starting position and the exercise performed on the other side. One hand may be rested on a chair or other stable surface for support.
Muscle Groups
Glutes
Hip flexors
Lower back
Standing Leg Curls
Start with the feet shoulder-width apart. The leg is lifted from the ground, with the knee bent, and the foot curled in toward the buttocks. The leg is returned to the starting position and the exercise performed on the other side. One or two hands may be rested on a chair or other stable surface for support.
Muscle Groups
Glutes
Hamstrings
One-Legged Romanian Dead Lifts
Start in a standing position with the feet together. Bending at the waist, one leg is raised in the air while the hand reaches for the floor. The leg is lowered to the starting position and the body returned to the upright position. The leg and back should stay straight always during the exercise.
Muscle Groups
Hamstrings
Lower back
Core
Hip Extensions
Start with the back resting on the ground, and the legs bent at 90 degrees with the feet resting on an elevated surface such as a chair. Using only the legs, the hips are pushed up as high as possible, held in contraction for a moment, then lowered to the starting position.
Muscle Groups
Glutes
Hamstrings
Lower back
King of the Klutz
Stand on one leg, body held vertically, closes the eyes, then holds the position for as long as possible. The difficulty may be increased by performing the exercise on a soft or unstable surface.
Muscle Groups
Calves
Quadriceps
Hamstrings
Hip flexors
Bam Bams
Lie in a prone position on a raised, horizontal surface so the legs may project freely beyond the edge of the surface and the toes rest on the ground. The legs are then spread as wide as possible, then raised slowly and brought together until the heels touch. The feet are then returned to the ground. The legs are held as straight as possible throughout the exercise.
Muscle Groups
Glutes
Ham Sandwich
Kneel on the ground, with the feet anchored under a solid surface, or held to the ground by another person. The body is then lowered until the chest is touching the ground. The individual then uses a plyometric movement with the arms to return to the starting position.
Muscle Groups
Hamstrings
Pectorals
Shoulders
Beat Your Boots
The feet are placed together on the ground and the individual bends at the waist to grab the ankles, with the legs kept straight. The knees are then bent until the buttocks touch the ankles. The body is then returned to the starting position.
Muscle Groups
Hamstrings
Quadriceps
The Arabesque
The arabesque is a technique that is borrowed from the ballet moves. It works excellently for the butt muscles and does not even make the use of free weights. However, if you want to add cuffs or ankle weights, you need to follow the following procedure. Place your hands on the back of the chair or on a railing and lift one leg behind you as high as possible, while holding your glutes and squeezing them for a count of about 4 or 5. Make sure to maintain an upright position so that you do not stress your lower back instead of the glutes.
Muscle Groups
Hamstrings
Glutes
The Duck Walk
Duck walks shape your butt. The procedure to do this exercise is to assume and hold a squatting position while walking forward for the repetitions and then walk backwards in the same positions for the repetitions.
Muscle Groups
Quadriceps
Hamstrings
Glutes
Tiger Athletic Fitness & Conditioning uses personal training to assess, motivate, educate and train you in a private, modern appointment only strength and conditioning in the heart of Sandton. Our rigorous pre-participation health appraisal screening process ensures that we design and deliver comprehensive exercise programs that safely and effectively meet your goals. Start your own Tiger Athletic fitness program by booking your initial interview.
Calisthenics is a smart, scientific approach to weight loss, strength gain and living a more active, fulfilling life. This is the fourth resource in our series on calisthenics, designed so you can work out in the privacy of your home or on location when travelling and can’t attend your sessions with your Tiger Athletic personal trainer without the aid of equipment, a trainer or supplements and begin to understand that you too can get healthy using just your body, the physical environment and a little imagination.
The word calisthenics comes from the ancient Greek words kálos (κάλλος), which means “beauty”, and sthénos (σθένος), meaning “strength”. It is the art of using one’s body weight and qualities of inertia to develop one’s physique. A longstanding urban legend has claimed that the exercise was named after one of its earliest promotors, the Greek historian Callisthenes.
Core exercises primarily involve dynamic and static contraction of the back and abdominal muscles, also aiding with improved balance and overall stability.
Crunch
Start in a supine position on the ground. The shoulders are curled towards the pelvis while the lower back remains flat against the floor. The focus is placed on contracting the abdominal muscles.
Variation
The Crunch It Up places the feet under a stationary object such as a low bed or couch. The arms are crossed over the stomach and the knees bent. Using the abdominal muscles, the torso is brought up just until the arms touch the thighs. The torso is then lowered to the starting position.
The V-Ups starts in a supine position with arms straight out on the ground and parallel to the body. The body is bent at the hips, the torso is raised off the ground and the legs brought to the chest with knees bent. The legs and torso are then lowered until they are just a few inches off the ground, but not touching it.
The Side-V starts on the ground, lying on one side of the body, with the arm closest to the ground stretched out perpendicular to the body. The other arm is bent, and the hand placed behind the head. The torso is raised and the legs, kept straight, are raised until the legs form a 90-degree angle with the torso. The legs and torso are then lowered until they are just a few inches off the ground, but not touching it.
The Jack-Knife starts on the ground, legs stretched out straight and the arms on the ground extended straight up over the head. The chest and legs are simultaneously brought up until the hands touch the feet. The legs and torso are then lowered until they are just a few inches off the ground, but not touching it.
The Bicycle starts on the ground, the hands behind the head. The knee is pulled in toward the chest while the upper body curls up to touch the opposite elbow to the knee. The leg is then straightened, and the exercise performed on the other side. The legs should be suspended off the ground during the exercise.
Muscle Groups
Abdominals
Hyperextension
Start in a prone position on the ground with the arms straight out in front of the body. The arms, legs and upper chest are lifted off the ground, and then slowly lowered back to the ground. This exercise is also known as “Superman’s”.
Variation
The Thumbs-Up starts in the same position, forms two fists with the thumbs pointed straight up, then lifts the head, shoulders and chest off the ground as high as possible.
The Swimmers raises and lowers the opposite leg and arm and alternates sides.
The Pillow Humpers places a towel under the hips and the feet under a stationary object like a low bed or couch. The hands are placed behind the head and the torso is raised off the ground as far as possible.
Muscle Groups
Lower back
Erector spinae
Planche
Start on the ground in a prone position, with the hands at the side of the body by the hips, palm down. The body is held straight while the arms push the body off the floor until the arms are straight. The entire weight of the individual is balanced on the arms. The body is then lowered to the ground.
Muscle Groups
Full Body
Plank
Place the toes and the forearms on the ground, with the elbows underneath the shoulders and the arm bent at a 90-degree angle. This position is maintained for as long as possible.
Variation
Front Plank
Side Plank
Reverse Plank
Static Push Up – simply holds the starting position of a Classic Push Up to failure.
S&M Push Ups – builds on the Static Push Up variant, but opposite legs and arms are lifted from the ground. The position is held to failure before switching sides.
Muscle Groups
Core
Abdominals
Back
Shoulders
Russian Twist
Start by sitting upright on the ground, with arms crossed and knees bent. The feet are lifted off the ground while the torso is twisted so the left elbow can touch the right knee, then twisted in the opposite direction so the right elbow can touch the left knee. The movement is repeated if possible.
Muscle Groups
Abdominals
Intercostal
Obliques
Standing Knee Raises
Start by standing upright, with arms raised out in front of the body. The left knee is brought up as high as possible, held up for a few moments, then lowered to the ground. The right knee is then raised as high as possible, held, then lowered to the ground.
Muscle Groups
Abdominals
Leg Raises
Start in a supine position on the floor, palms on the floor under the lower back or buttocks. The legs are slowly raised to a 45-degree angle with the ground, then slowly lowered to the ground.
The exercise can be increased in difficulty by raising the legs to a 90-degree angle, and not allowing the legs to return fully to the floor between repetitions.
Variation
Flutter Kicks – raise both legs off the ground by several inches, then alternates lifting each leg to the 45-degree position and returning it to its starting position.
Hello Darlings – raise both legs off the ground by several inches, then opens and closes the legs with a horizontal movement.
The Hanging Leg Lift – tart by hanging from a horizontal bar by their hands. The knees are brought slowly up to the chest and then returned to the starting position. The difficulty can be increased by keeping the legs straight as they are raised as high as possible.
Muscle Groups
Abdominals
Hip flexors
Beach Scissors
Begins by lying on the side, one hand propping up the head, both legs kept straight. The upper leg is raised as high as possible, held in the air for a moment, then lowered to the starting position. The difficulty may be increased by propping up the body on one elbow.
Muscle Groups
Hip flexors
Obliques
Hip Ups
Begins by lying on the ground, propped up on one elbow, hip and feet touching the ground. The hips are then raised until the body is in a straight line. The hips are then lowered to the starting position.
Muscle Groups
Obliques
Intercostal
Supine Windshield Wipers
Begin by lying on the ground in a supine position, legs raised in the air at 90 degrees, arms stretched out the sides. The legs are then lowered to the right side by rotating the hips, then brought back to the starting position. The legs are then lowered to the left side, then returned to the starting position.
Variation
Half Windshield Wipers
Full Windshield Wipers
Muscle Groups
Abdominals
Obliques
Intercostal
Yes, No, Maybes
Begin in a supine position on a raised surface, with the head and neck extending off the edge. The head is then moved up and down in a “yes” fashion. The head is then turned from side to side in a “no” fashion. Finally, the head is moved from side to side, bringing each ear to the nearest shoulder in a “maybe” fashion. The exercise may also be performed in a prone position, with the hands placed on the back of the head to provide extra resistance.
Muscle Groups
Neck
Tiger Athletic Fitness & Conditioning uses personal training to assess, motivate, educate and train you in a private, modern appointment only strength and conditioning in the heart of Sandton. Our rigorous pre-participation health appraisal screening process ensures that we design and deliver comprehensive exercise programs that safely and effectively meet your goals. Start your own Tiger Athletic fitness program by booking your initial interview.
Calisthenics is a smart, scientific approach to weight loss, strength gain and living a more active, fulfilling life. This is the third resource in our series on calisthenics, designed so you can workout in privacy of your home or on location when travelling and can’t attend your sessions with your Tiger Athletic personal trainer without the aid of equipment, a trainer or supplements and begin to understand that you too can get healthy using just your body, the physical environment and a little imagination.
Pull body weight exercises use a resistive or static pulling motion to work various muscle groups.
The word calisthenics comes from the ancient Greek words kálos (κάλλος), which means “beauty”, and sthénos (σθένος), meaning “strength”. It is the art of using one’s body weight and qualities of inertia to develop one’s physique. A longstanding urban legend has claimed that the exercise was named after one of its earliest promotors, the Greek historian Callisthenes.
Human Flag
Start by grabbing a vertical object such as a pole or tree trunk, with both hands palms pronated. The body is then lifted into a horizontal position using the abdominal muscles, with the arms remaining as straight as possible.
Muscle Groups
Abdominals (mainly obliques)
Shoulders
Triceps (this is for the pushing down by the lower arm)
Biceps (this is done by the pulling of the upper arm)
Muscle up
Starts with an aggressive standard Pull Up with an overhand grip to chest level, at which point the wrists are rotated forward to permit the elbows and arms to swing above the bar. The arms then push the body up until the arms are straight and the waist is at the level of the bar. The motion is then reversed so the body can be lowered back to the starting position. The transition between the high pull up and the low dip is the most difficult part and emphasizes the trapezius.
Muscle Groups
Deltoids
Trapezius
Erector spinae
Latissimus dorsi
Biceps
Brachialis
Pull Up
The body weight Pull Up is another common indicator of an individual’s general fitness level.
Start by hanging from a bar with the arms extended and the palms facing away from the exerciser. The body is then pulled up using the arms until the elbows are bent and the head is higher than the hands. If the hands are moved closer, more emphasis is placed on the biceps and elbow flexors.
Muscle Groups
Deltoids
Trapezius
Erector spinae
Latissimus dorsi
Biceps
Brachialis
Abdominals
Let Me Ins
Start by facing the outer edge of an open door that has a standard doorknob set. The feet are placed on either side of the door and the door pressed between the feet, the heels directly below the doorknob. The individual then leans back until the arms are straight and bends the knees, so a 90-degree angle is formed between the thighs and back. The body is then pulled toward the door until the chest touches the edge of the door. The thighs and back should remain locked into a 90-degree angle throughout the exercise. The body is then lowered to the starting point.
The exercise can be performed with either a side grip or over-handed grip, which places emphasis on the extensors on the outside of the forearm, or an under-handed grip, which shifts the focus to the flexors on the inside of the forearms.
The difficulty can be modified by moving the feet; moving them forward increases the difficulty while moving the feet back decreases the difficulty. The exercise can also be performed with unilateral movements (one-handed) to increase the difficulty.
Variation
Towel Grip Let Me In
One-Handed Let Me In
Muscle Groups
Latissimus dorsi
Biceps
Forearms
Deltoids
Let Me Ups
Start by lying on the ground in the supine position, and grasps a bar mounted at arm’s length above the chest. The arms are bent to pull the body up to the bar, while the body remains as straight as possible from the ankles to the shoulders. The body is then lowered until the arms are straight.
The exercise may be made less difficult by moving the feet closer to the bar and bending the knees. The exercise may be increased in difficulty by raising the feet onto a raised surface. Performing the exercise with an overhand grip focuses on the extensors on the outside of the forearm, while an underhand grip changes the focus to the flexors on the inside of the forearm.
Muscle Groups
Latissimus dorsi
Biceps
Forearms
Deltoids
Towel Curls
Start in a standing position with the back against a wall. The ends of a bath-sized towel are grasped in each hand, and the towel is looped under the foot of one leg. The towel is pulled upwards with the arms, the elbows locked against the side of the body, while pushing down with the foot to provide resistance. The arms are then lowered slowly as the foot continues to provide resistance until the arms are at the starting position.
The difficulty of the exercise may be modified by providing varying resistance with the foot; the exercise may be made even more difficult by performing it with one hand.
Variation
The Ledge Curl uses a fixed ledge between waist and chest height to provide resistance. The hands are balled into fists and placed under the ledge. Then bend over slowly while pressing up against the bottom of the ledge, then returns slowly to the starting position, maintaining the same level of resistance along the way.
The Isometric Curl uses one hand placed on the wrist of the other hand to provide resistance to the curling motion; the curling arm does not move in this case but instead benefits from the isometric tension of the exercise.
Muscle Groups
Biceps
Forearms
The Claw
Begin by placing the arms in front of the body, open and close the hands and fingers as tightly and as quickly as possible. This exercise is usually performed for many repetitions.
Muscle Groups
Hands
Forearms
Tiger Athletic Fitness & Conditioning uses personal training to assess, motivate, educate and train you in a private, modern appointment only strength and conditioning in the heart of Sandton. Our rigorous pre-participation health appraisal screening process ensures that we design and deliver comprehensive exercise programs that safely and effectively meet your goals. Start your own Tiger Athletic fitness program by booking your initial interview.
Calisthenics is a smart, scientific approach to weight loss, strength gain and living a more active, fulfilling life. This is the second resource in our series on calisthenics, designed so you can workout in privacy of your home or on location when travelling and can’t attend your sessions with your Tiger Athletic personal trainer without the aid of equipment, a trainer or supplements and begin to understand that you too can get healthy using just your body, the physical environment and a little imagination.
The word calisthenics comes from the ancient Greek words kálos (κάλλος), which means “beauty”, and sthénos (σθένος), meaning “strength”. It is the art of using one’s body weight and qualities of inertia to develop one’s physique. A longstanding urban legend has claimed that the exercise was named after one of its earliest promotors, the Greek historian Callisthenes.
Push body weight exercises use a resistive or static pushing motion to work various muscle groups. Most push exercises focus on the pectoral, shoulder, and triceps muscles, but other muscle groups such as the abdominal and back muscles are leveraged to maintain good form during the push exercise.
Bridge
Begin in a sit-up position with the hands positioned by the ears, palms down, fingers facing the legs. Push up with the arms and the back muscles until the body resembles a lowercase ‘n’. The spine must be convex and the limbs straight.
Variation
Inverse Push Ups. Difficulty can be increased by entering the bridge from a standing position and bending backwards in a controlled manner into the bridge.
Muscle Groups
Triceps
Trapezius
Deltoids
Glutes
Lower back
4-Count Bodybuilder
From a standing position, drop to a squat with hands on floor (count 1), thrusts the legs back to a push up position (count 2), returns the legs to the squat position (count 3) and then returns to standing position (count 4).
Variation
The Burpee replaces count 4 with a plyometric squat. Jump before returning to the standing starting position.
The military 8-Count Bodybuilder adds a full push up after count 2 (count 3 and 4) and opens and closes the legs while in push-up position (count 5 and 6).
Muscle Groups
Legs
Abdominals
Shoulders
Dips
Begin with the hands placed on two solid surfaces at or around waist height. The knees are then bent to raise the feet from the ground, and the body is lowered as far as possible using the arms, then raised again.
Muscle Groups
Triceps
Pectorals
Seated Dip
Begin with their feet on the floor, legs out straight, and hands placed on a supporting level surface between knee and waist height. Start with straight arms with the shoulders above the hands, the body is lowered until the arms are bent at a 90-degree angle. The body is then raised to the starting position. Difficulty may be decreased by moving the feet closer to the body. Difficulty may be increased by raising the feet onto a stable surface.
Variation
The Hanging Dip or Parallel Dip requires an apparatus such as a dip bar or two parallel bars (or substitutes such as tree branches or two tables) and the legs are fully raised off the ground, with the individual’s body weight supported by the arms alone.
Muscle Groups
Triceps
Chest
L-sit
Sit with the body in an L-position, the upper body perpendicular to the ground and the legs out straight and parallel to the ground. The hands are placed beside the glutes. The hands and arms then push the entire body, including the legs, upwards off the ground with the legs remaining parallel to the ground. This exercise taxes the muscles through isometric tension.
Variation
The V-Sit variation increases the difficulty by holding the legs higher, angled away from the ground, so the individual’s body forms a ‘V’ shape.
Muscle Groups
Obliques
Rectus Abdominis
Triceps
Quadriceps
Pectorals
Lunge
Stand on flat surface, step forward with one leg and bend down until the front knee is bent at a 90-degree angle. The back-knee bends to almost touch the ground. The front knee should not extend past the front toes to maintain good form. Return to the starting position by pushing back with the front leg and stepping back so both feet are together.
Variation
Back Lunge is performed from the same position, however, step back with the leg until the front knee is bent at a 90-degree angle and the back knee is almost touching the ground.
Iron Mikes, start out in the bottom position of the lunge, perform a plyometric jump and switch leg positions so the landing position is opposite to the starting position.
Walking Lunges do not return the front leg to the starting position, step forward with the back leg to place the feet together.
Muscle Groups
Thigh
Buttocks
Hamstrings
Side Lunges
Start with the feet positioned slightly apart and take a wide step to the side with the left foot, toes pointing slightly outward. As the left foot contacts, the ground, shift your weight to the left so most of your body weight is supported by the left leg. Lower the hips and slide the hips back until the left thigh is parallel with the ground. The back and the head are kept straight throughout the movement. Hold the position for a moment, then raise the body by pushing up with the left leg and move the feet together again. The exercise is then repeated on the right side.
Variation
Difficulty may be increased by performing the Wide Side Lunge variant; start with the feet in a wide stance instead of together, keep the feet in the wide stance throughout the exercise and omit the intermediate step of moving the feet together between repetitions.
Muscle Groups
Quadriceps
Glutes
Hip flexors
Hamstrings
Bear Walk
Place the hands and the feet on the ground, with the head facing the ground, proceed to crawl around for a set distance/time by striding with the arms and legs.
Muscle Groups
Shoulders
Chest
Triceps
Trapezius
Core
Rocking Chairs
Begin in a fully extended plank or push-up position. The body is then pushed slowly forward about six to ten inches, while the arms are kept straight. The body is then returned to the starting position.
Variation
Rocking Chair Press – Increase difficulty by bending the arms and lowering the body until it is close to the floor. The body is then slowly pushed forward and returned to the starting position. The difficulty may be further increased by extending the arms between sets to perform a push-up.
Muscle Groups
Pectorals
Triceps
Deltoids
Core
Shove Offs
Begin by standing in front of an elevated surface with a ledge that will bear the weight your weight. The body is tilted forward with the hands and arms extended and the back and legs held straight. The body can continue to fall forward, and the individual catches their weight on the elevated surface with their hands in a palm-down position and arms bent. The arms are then forcefully extended to push the body back to the upright position. The waist is not bent at any time during the exercise.
Variation
Increase difficulty by selecting a lower surface which decreases the leverage of the arms and moves the centre of gravity forwards towards the hands.
Muscle Groups
Pectorals
Shoulders
Triceps
Mountain Climbers
Begin in a push-up position, with the body in a straight line and elbows locked. The left knee is brought to the chest and the left foot placed on the ground, with the right leg remaining outstretched. Then perform a small hop and switch the position of the feet so that the right knee is brought to the chest, the right foot placed on the ground and the left leg is extended behind the body. The exercise is then repeated, most commonly at a fast pace for a defined length of time.
Muscle Groups
Shoulders
Abdominals
Core
Pec Crawl
Begin in a push-up position on a smooth surface. The body is propelled forward using only the arms which are never bent beyond 90 degrees. The feet are dragged behind you, the body held in a straight line. This exercise is best performed on a smooth floor while wearing socks or with a folder towel placed under the feet.
Muscle Groups
Deltoids
Core
Pectorals
Triceps
Dive Bomber
The feet are placed on the ground just a few inches apart, with the legs held straight. Bend over at the waist and place your hands on the ground a few feet in front of the toes, forming an inverted ‘V’ with the body, the hips forming the vertex of the ‘V’. Swing your chest and shoulders down in an arc, between the hands, so the chest nearly touches the ground. The head and shoulders are curved up in an arc as high as possible, until the back is fully arched, the head is facing forward, and the pelvis is only a few inches off the ground. The motion is then reversed, the chest and shoulders moving through the hands, close to the ground, with the arms pushing the body back to the starting point. The arms should end up straight and in line with the back.
Variation
The Half Dive Bomber stops the movement at the point the chest is between the hands and then reverses the movement to return to the starting position.
The Hindu Dand returns directly to the starting position without bending the arms or arcing the chest and shoulders back through the hands.
Decrease difficulty by moving the feet further apart, or by elevating the hands on a stable surface. The difficulty can be increased by placing only a single leg on the ground at a time.
Muscle Groups
Pectorals
Triceps
Deltoids
Core
Pec Flies
Starts by lying face down on a smooth, hard floor. The legs are placed out straight with the toes on the floor, and the arms out to the sides. Two small towels are placed under the palms. With the arms and body kept straight, the palms are slid together in a controlled manner until the hands are under the shoulders. The hands are then slowly slid apart until the chest is barely touching the floor.
Muscle Groups
Pectorals
Core
Shoulders
Side Triceps Extension
Start by lying down on your right side, body in a straight line. The right hand is placed on the left shoulder, and the left hand is placed palm down on the ground, under the right shoulder, fingers pointing towards the head. The left arm pushes the upper body off the ground until the arm is straight, bending at the waist to keep the lower body on the ground. The body is then lowered to the starting position. The exercise is repeated on the left side to work the right triceps.
Muscle Groups
Triceps
Obliques
Crab Walk
Start by sitting on the ground with the knees bent. Both feet and both palms are placed on the floor. The body is lifted off the floor and you walk like a crab, both forward and backward.
Muscle Groups
Triceps
Core
Hip Raiser
Sit on the ground in an L-position with the back perpendicular to the ground and legs out straight. The palms are placed on the ground beside the hips. The soles of the feet are placed on the ground and the pelvis is lifted off the floor until the knees are bent at a 90-degree angle and the body is straight from the head to the knees, with the face pointed straight up. The position is held for a moment and then the body is returned to the starting position.
Muscle Groups
Triceps
Shoulders
Glutes
Hamstrings
Air Plunges
Begin by lying down on the ground flat on the back, with the arms placed palm-down on the ground. The legs are lifted until they are straight in the air, perpendicular to the ground. The arms are used to push the hips off the ground as high as possible, keeping the legs perpendicular to the ground. The hips are then lowered slowly to the starting position. Lie flat on the back, arms to the side, palms on the ground.
Variation
Increase difficulty by holding the hips in the top position for a few seconds before they are lowered to the ground.
Muscle Groups
Triceps
Lower abdominals
Surface Triceps Extensions
Begin by grasping a stable, waist-level surface such as a couch, railing, table or a horizontal bar. The surface is grasped with an overhand grip, hands shoulder-width apart. The feet are placed back slightly further than a standard push up position. The body is kept straight, while the arms are bent, and the body lowered until the head is below the hands. The body is then raised by pushing up with the arms until the arms are locked out straight. The elbows should be kept pointed straight down throughout the movement.
Variation
Decrease difficulty by grasping a higher surface to move the centre of gravity closer to the body.
Muscle Groups
Triceps
Core
Arm Rotations
Begin by standing and placing the arms straight out and perpendicular with the body. The hands and arms are moved in circles, first forward, then backward, for a selected number of rotations.
Variation
The targeted muscle groups of this exercise can be modified by repositioning the arm and body: making circles with the arms pointed out straight in front of the individual moves the focus to the front deltoids, while bending over and moving the arms up and down instead of in circles emphasizes the rear deltoids.
Muscle Groups
Shoulders
The Roof Is on Fire
Begin in a push up position and performs a single push up. Then the individual will kneel and raise their hands in the air four times as if they are performing an unweighted overhead press. The individual then performs two push ups, then kneels and performs eight unweighted overhead presses. The individual will continue to ladder up in this manner, with the count of unweighted overhead presses equalling four times the number of pushups. When muscle failure is reached, the individual then ladders down with a decreasing number of push ups and a corresponding number of unweighted overhead presses.
Muscle Groups
Shoulders
Triceps
Pectorals
Tiger Athletic Fitness & Conditioning uses personal training to assess, motivate, educate and train you in a private, modern appointment only strength and conditioning in the heart of Sandton. Our rigorous pre-participation health appraisal screening process ensures that we design and deliver comprehensive exercise programs that safely and effectively meet your goals. Start your own Tiger Athletic fitness program by booking your initial interview.
Tiger Athletic is led by a primary mission to teach and develop physical literacy. Calisthenics, is a smart, scientific approach to weight loss, strength gain and living a more active, fulfilling life. Through this series of resources, you can get in touch with your unique physique in the privacy of your home or when travelling you can exercise in the privacy of your accommodation without the aid of equipment, a trainer or expensive supplements and begin to understand that you too can get healthy using just your body, the physical environment and a little imagination.
The word calisthenics comes from the ancient Greek words kálos (κάλλος), which means “beauty”, and sthénos (σθένος), meaning “strength”. It is the art of using one’s body weight and qualities of inertia to develop one’s physique. A longstanding urban legend has claimed that the exercise was named after one of its earliest promotors, the Greek historian Callisthenes.
Calisthenics are exercises consisting of a variety of gross motor movements; often rhythmical and generally without equipment or apparatus (body-weight training), intended to increase physical strength, physical fitness, and flexibility, through movements such as pulling or pushing oneself up, bending, jumping, or swinging, using only one’s body weight for resistance; usually conducted in concert with stretches. When performed dynamically and with variation, calisthenics provide muscular and aerobic conditioning, in addition to improving psychomotor skills such as balance, agility and coordination.
Sports teams and military units often perform leader-directed group calisthenics as a form of synchronized physical training (often including a customized “call and response” routine) to increase group cohesion and discipline. Calisthenics are also popular as a component of physical education in junior and senior schools the world over.
Body weight exercises are strength training exercises that do not require any apparatus; the individual’s own weight provides the resistance for the movement. Movements such as the push-up, the pull-up, and the sit-up are some of the most common body weight exercises.
Advantages
Body weight exercises are the ideal for individuals interested in fitness but do not have access to or interest in using equipment. While some exercises may require some type of equipment, most of body weight exercises require none. For those exercises that do require equipment, common items found in the household are usually sufficient (such as a bath towel for towel curls), or substitutes can usually be improvised (for example, using a horizontal tree branch to perform pull ups). Body weight exercises benefit all age groups.
Most body weight exercises can be progressed or regressed, this progression/regression strategy allows people of all levels of fitness to participate. Some basic methods to increase or decrease the difficulty of a body weight exercise, without adding extra weight, are: changing the amount of leverage in an exercise (such as elevating the feet for a standard push-up, or performing the push-up with knees on the ground), performing the exercise on an unstable platform (such as performing push-ups on a basketball), modifying the range of motion in an exercise (such as squatting to a 45 degree angle rather than a 90 degree angle), incorporating unilateral movements as opposed to bilateral movements (such as performing a one-armed push-up), and adding isometric pauses during the exercise (such as holding for a few seconds at the bottom of a push-up). Gymnasts make extensive use of isometrics by doing much of their training with straight arms (such as iron crosses, levers, and planches). When compared to weight lifting, body weight exercises often require much more flexibility and balance.
Body weight exercises have a far lower risk of injury compared to using free weights and machines due to the absence of an external load that places strain on the muscles and joints. The lower risk of injury is only provided that the athlete/trainee is progressing through the correct progressions and not immediately skipping to strenuous movements that can place undue and possibly harmful stress on ligaments, tendons, and other tissues. Although falling on the head, chest, buttocks, and falling backwards can occur, these are far less harmful injuries than dropping a weight on a body part or having a joint extended beyond its natural range of motion due to a weight being used incorrectly.
Body weight exercises also give the advantage of having minimal bulking and cutting requirements that are normally utilised in free weight and machines training. This is due to bulking bringing extra fat that decreases the performance of body weight exercises, thus body weight exercises not only remove the need for a bulking or cutting phase, but it can help a person retain a low body fat percentage all year round.
Body weight exercises also work several muscle groups at once, due to the lack of isolation and the need of a large majority of muscles to perform a movement properly. For example, in a push up, the body must form a rigid straight line, and the elbow joint must move from a straight angle to the smallest angle possible, and thus the core muscles, chest muscles, triceps, and legs are all involved in ensuring proper, strict form.
Disadvantages
Body weight exercises use the individual’s own weight to provide the resistance for the movement, hence the weight being lifted is never greater than the weight of one’s own body. This can make it difficult to achieve a level of intensity that is near the individual’s one rep maximum, which is desirable for strength training.
Body weight exercises can be increased in intensity by including additional weights (such as wearing a weighted vest or holding a barbell, Kettle Bell, sand bell or plate during a sit up), but this deviates from the general premise that body weight exercises rely solely on the weight of the individual to provide resistance. However, difficulty can be added by changing the leverage, which places more emphasis on specific limbs and muscles, e.g. a one-legged squat works a leg far stronger than a two-legged squat, which not only requires strength but progressing to a one-legged squat builds strength along the way. The same can be seen with one arm pushups, pull ups, and many other exercises. Difficulty can also be added by increasing volume, adding explosiveness to the movements, or slowing down the movement to increase time under tension.
Classes of Exercises
Body weight exercises are generally grouped into four rough classes:
Push, which requires the individual to use pushing movements to direct the body against gravity;
Pull, which requires the practitioner to use pulling to direct the body;
Core, which involves contracting movements of the abdominal and back muscles; and
Legs/Glutes, which involve movements of the legs and glutes to direct the individual’s body against gravity.
Tiger Athletic personal trainers are health and fitness professionals who use an individualised approach to assess, motivate, educate and train you. Our rigorous pre-participation health appraisal screening process ensures that we design and deliver comprehensive exercise programs that safely and effectively meet your goals.
Start your own Tiger Athletic fitness program by booking your initial interview. This is a scheduled appointment intended as a mutual sharing of information with the expected outcomes of assessing client – trainer compatability, discussing goals and developing a a client – trainer agreement.
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